Visual arts 

Performing arts

Literary arts

include 

Paintings, pottery, architecture, sculpture, ceramics, etc.

Dance, music, puppetry, theatre, martial arts, etc.

Literature, poetry, prose, etc.

Ajanta paintings

• While decorative motifs adorn the ceilings and pillars, the core themes of these murals are predominantly Buddhist, reflecting spiritual and religious narratives of the era.
• They are mostly connected to the Jataka, a collection of tales that describes the Lord Buddha’s earlier lives.

Notable specimens

• The earliest paintings at Ajanta are found in cave No. IX and X, and the only one that has survived is a group on cave X’s left wall. This shows a king and his courtiers in front of a flag-draped tree. The King has travelled to the revered Bodhi tree in order to fulfil a vow made to the prince who is present and close to the king.
• One of the masterpieces of Ajanta Painting created in the late 6th century CE is the painting of the Bodhisattva Padmapani from cave I. This magnificently decorated figure is larger than life-size and is depicted pausing slightly while holding a lotus flower in his right hand.
• The painting of Maya Devi, the Buddha’s mother, is a lovely representation of female beauty.

Bagh cave Paintings

• The Ajanta paintings in caves No. I and II match those from the Bagh caves in Madhya Pradesh.
• Both figures share the same form stylistically, but Bagh figures have stronger outlines and are more precisely modelled.
• Compared to those at Ajanta, they are more earthy and human.
• The fragments discovered in Badami Cave No. III, dating to the 6th century A.D., are the earliest Brahmanical paintings that are currently known.
• The Siva and Parvati painting is found to be reasonably well-preserved.
• Although the technique is similar to that of Ajanta and Bagh, the modelling is much more expressive and sensitive in texture, and the outline is flexible and soft.
• The finest examples of the North Indian and Deccan classical traditions can be found in the paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, and Badami.
• These paintings have darkly drawn contours that stand out against a light red background.

Ellora Paintings

• Between the 8th and 10th centuries A.D., a number of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples were carved out of Ellora’s living rock.
• 34 caves total, including 17 Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist, and 5 Jain, are found in the Sahyadri ranges of Maharashtra, about 100 km from Ajanta caves.
• Indra Sabha (Cave 32) and Jagannath Sabha are two well-known Jain caves (Cave 33).
• Sharp features and pointed noises characterize sinewy figures.

Badami cave paintings

• The early Chalukyan dynasty, which ruled the area from 543 to 598 CE was centred in Badami.
• The dedication of the image of Vishnu is included in the inscription in Cave No. 4, which also mentions the years 578 and 579 CE and praises the beauty of the cave.
• This cave has paintings that show scenes from palaces. One depicts Kirtivarman, the elder brother of Mangalesha and the son of Pulakesin I, sitting inside the palace with his wife and feudatories while viewing a dance scene.
• The paintings here have a similar aesthetic to those in Ajanta.
• The fluid forms, sinuously drawn lines, and compact composition demonstrate the artists’ skill and maturity by the sixth century CE.

Sittanavasal Paintings

• These paintings feature a variety of subjects, such as animals, fish, ducks, people collecting lotuses from a pond, two dancing figures, etc. In addition, one can discover inscriptions from the 9th and 10th centuries, with Jainism serving as their primary source of inspiration.

Pandyas Paintings

• Jains texts, female figures, etc. Fresco-secco technique. Eg: Armamalai cave paintings.

Pallavas Paintings

• Beautiful lotus ponds and flowers, dancing people, lilies, fish, geese, buffaloes, and elephants are all present. A rounded face and wide, fully opened eyes. Eg: Kanchipuram Temple Paintings are patronized by Rajasimha.

Chola paintings

• The paintings celebrate Lord Shiva.

Vijayanagara Paintings

• The works of art depict the Vijayanagara Court’s history and times. Paintings from a secular era decorate the walls of Lepakshi Temple. Eg: Virupaksha Temple, Hampi – consists of the history of the dynasty and stories of Ramayana and Mahabharatha.

Nayaka Paintings

• It is the extension of Vijayanagara paintings. Depicting the story of Mucukunds, a legendary Chola King.

Kerala Murals Paintings

• Inspired by Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu. The theme is mostly based on Hindu mythology. Eg: Vadakkunnathan temple, Thrissur, Padmanabhapuram palace, Trivandrum.

Miniature

About

• The evolution of miniature art reached new heights after India’s direct engagement with Islamic civilization. The arrival of the Mughal Empire (1526–1757 AD) marked a turning point, as imperial studios were established at the Mughal court, ushering in a transformative era in Indian art.
• This period gave rise to a wide array of paintings—royal portraits, festive scenes, illustrated manuscripts, and album miniatures—that spread across the Indian subcontinent. While Persian influence initially shaped the aesthetics of miniature painting, Indian artists quickly infused their own distinctive style, reclaiming artistic originality and setting the foundation for a uniquely Indian expression.

Pala School  (8th century CE)

About

• The illustrations of religious texts on Buddhism created under the Palas of eastern India and the Jain texts created in western India during the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. are the earliest examples of miniature painting in India.
• At institutions like Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila, and Somarupa, a significant number of palm-leaf manuscripts relating to Buddhist themes were written and decorated with pictures of Buddhist deities.
• To receive education and religious instruction, pilgrims and students from all over South-East Asia gathered there. They brought bronzes and manuscripts, which helped spread the Pala style to Nepal, Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka, Java, etc., back to their home countries as examples of Buddhist art from the Pala period.
• The majority of the Pala illustrated manuscripts that have survived are from the Vajrayana School of Buddhism.
• The painting by Pala displays a naturalistic aesthetic and is distinguished by sinuous lines and subdued colour tones.
• The Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita manuscript, also known as the perfection of Wisdom written in eight thousand lines, is one of the best examples. It is kept in Oxford, England.
• After Muslim invaders decimated the Buddhist monasteries in the first half of the 13th century, Pala art abruptly came to an end. Some of the artists and monks made their way to Nepal, where they helped to strengthen the country’s already-strong artistic traditions.
• Colours were used in this form of painting which had symbolic meanings

Mughal school

About

• In India’s history of painting, the founding of the Mughal School of Painting is regarded as a turning point.
• The Mughal School of Painting began with the establishment of the Mughal empire in the reign of Akbar in 1560 CE, who was keenly interested in the art of painting and architecture.
• A painting studio was established at the start of his reign under the direction of two Persian masters, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad Khan, who had previously worked for his father Humayun.
• To work with the Persian masters, a sizable number of Indian artists from all over India were enlisted.
• The Safavid school of Persian painting and the native Indian painting style came together in a harmonious way to form the Mughal style.
• It is primarily aristocratic and secular, characterized by supple naturalism based on careful observation of nature and fine and delicate drawing.
• An illustrated manuscript of the Tuti-Nama in the Cleveland Museum of Art (USA) appears to be the first work of the Mughal School.
• The Mughal style is depicted in this manuscript’s artwork in its early stages. Soon after, between 1564 and 1569 CE, a very ambitious project known as the Hamza-Nama illustrations on cloth was finished. It originally had 1400 leaves in 17 volumes.
• Along with the two Persian masters already mentioned, other well-known painters who worked in Akbar’s court included Dasvanth, Miskina, Nanha, Kanha, Basawan, Manohar, Doulat, Mansur,  Kesu, Bhim Gujarati, etc.
• Jahangir had a great fascination for nature and took delight in the portraiture of birds, animals, and flowers.
• Important manuscripts that were illustrated during his reign include the Anwar-i-sunavli, another fable book, and the animal fable book Ayar-i-Danish.
• The famous painters of Jahangir are Aqa Riza, Abul Hasan, Mansur, Bishan Das, Manohar, Goverdhan, Balchand, Daulat, Mukhlis, Bhim, and Inayat.
• The portrait of Jahangir illustrated is a typical example of a miniature executed during the period of Jahangir.
• A series of the Razm-Nama dated 1616 CE, a series of the Rasikapriya (1610-1615), and a series of the Ramayana of circa 1610 CE are some other notable examples of the Mughal School.
• The Gulistan and the Bustan of Sadi, which were copied for the emperor in the first and second years of his reign, and the Shah Jahan Nama, are two notable examples of such manuscripts. Other paintings depicting groups of ascetics and mystics as well as several illustrated manuscripts were also created during his time.
• Being a puritan, Aurangzeb’s reign saw a decline in the quality of painting and a significant loss of that quality. The provincial courts received a large influx of court painters.
• After Aurangzeb’s neglect, there was a revival of Mughal painting during the reign of Bahadur Shah.
• After 1712 CE, the Mughal painting again started deteriorating under the later Mughals.

Rajasthani School

About

• Akbar, the succeeding Mughal Emperor, constructed an atelier for them to promote the rich art form. These artists, in turn, trained Indian artists who created paintings in a new distinct style inspired by the Mughals’ royal and romantic lives.
• Rajput or Rajasthani miniature is a style of miniature created by Indian artists. Several schools of painting emerged during this period, including Mewar (Udaipur), Bundi, Kotah, Marwar (Jodhpur), Bikaner, Jaipur, and Kishangarh.

Features

• The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism, and Sakti had a huge influence on this school’s pictorial art.
• The various Krishna cults provided a very rich field for the painter, who made a significant contribution to the development of Indian painting with his artistic skill and devotion.
• The Rajasthani School of painting is marked by bold drawings and strong and contrasting colours.
• Figures are rendered flatly, with no attempt to depict perspective in a naturalistic manner.
• To distinguish one scene from another, the surface of the painting is sometimes divided into several compartments of different colours.
• The Mughal era’s influence can be seen in the drawing’s refinement and the introduction of some naturalism in the figures and trees.
• In addition to illustrating Ramayana stories, kings’ and queens’ royal lifestyles were also shown.
• Additionally, they illustrated social norms and the modifications made by kings to advance society. A distinctive aspect of the Rajasthani School was the background of the paintings.
• Paper, ivory, and silk were used as their canvas in this school of painting.

Bundi school

About

• This style of painting is dated back to 1625 AD
• A painting showing Bhairavi Ragini, in the Allahabad Museum is one of the earliest examples of a Bundi painting.
• Themes from the life of Krishna are a major theme in this school of painting
• An illustration of the aforementioned is found in the late 17th-century poem Rasikapriya, which contains a scene in which Krishna attempts to steal butter from a Gopi. However, when he discovers that the pot only contains a piece of cloth and a few other items, not butter, he realizes that the Gopi has tricked him. 
• Trees can be seen in the foreground and a river is shown in the foreground with wavy lines. Flowers and a pair of waterbirds can be seen in the river. The border of the painting is a stunning shade of red.
• The salient characteristic of this school of painting is the rich and glowing colours, the rising sun in golden colour, crimson-red horizon, overlapping and semi-naturalistic trees
• The delicate drawing of the faces and the use of naturalism in the treatment of the trees are both examples of Mughal influence. On the top, the text is printed in black on a yellow background.

Malwa School

About

• It was most prosperous between 1600 and 1700 CE and is a prime example of Hindu Rajput courts. Malwa School rejects a specific centre for its origin and instead suggests a vast territory of Central India.
• This contrasts with the specificity of Rajasthani schools, which emerged and thrived in precise territorial kingdoms and courts of their respective kings. After the 17th century came to an end, this conservative style vanished.

Salient features of this form of painting

• Malwa paintings display a preference for rigidly flat compositions, dark backgrounds (often black or chocolate brown), figures set against solid colour patches, and vibrantly coloured architecture.
• The school’s most appealing features are a primitive charm and a simple childlike vision.
• The first piece in this genre is an illustrated Rasikapriy from 1634, followed by a series of illustrations for the Amaru Ataka, a Sanskrit poem (1652).
• The Bhagavata-Purana, the musical modes (Ragamala), and other Hindu literary and devotional works are also illustrated.

Mewar school

About

• One of the most significant schools of Indian miniature painting from the 17th and 18th centuries is the Mewar painting. It was created in the Hindu principality of Mewar and is a school in the Rajasthani style (in Rajasthan state).

Salient features

• The works of the school are characterized by simple bright colours and direct emotional appeal.
• The earliest known Mewar painting is a series of Ragamala paintings by Misardi that were created in 1605 CE in Chawand, a small town close to Udaipur.
• Most of the paintings of this series are in the collection of Shri Gopi Krishna Kanoria.
• Through 1680, the expressive and dynamic style persisted in the region with some minor variations, after which the Mughal influence became more pronounced.
• Despite the popularity of religious subjects, portraiture and the life of the ruler occupied an increasing number of paintings.

Pahari Style

About

• In sub-Himalayan India through Himachal Pradesh, from Jammu to Almora and Garhwal, the Pahari style developed and thrived between the 17th and 19th centuries. The Pahari paintings can be divided into two categories: Basholi and Kangra School and Jammu or Dogra School.
• The bold, intense Basohli Painting, which originated in Basohli in Jammu and Kashmir, and the delicate, lyrical Kangra paintings, which came to be associated with the style before other schools of painting emerged, each produced stark variations within the genre.

Basohli School

About

• This school of Pahari painting received patronage from Raja Kripal Pal
• Famous works produced by this school include miniatures created in the style of Rasamanjari illustrations by a painter by the name of Devidasa in 1694.
• Another well-known illustration from this school of painting dates to 1730 AD and is taken from a series of paintings by Manaku of the Gita Govinda.
• The facial type changes, becoming a little heavier, and the tree forms take on a more naturalistic appearance, possibly as a result of the Mughal painting’s influence.
• In this miniature, it is possible to see the use of vibrant, contrasting colours, a monochromatic background, big eyes, bold lines, beetles’ wings to depict diamonds in ornaments, a narrow sky, and a red border.

Kangra School

About

• This collection of paintings is referred to as the Kangra style because Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra’s portraits is the only other painter who painted in a similar manner to them. The Nainsukh family is primarily credited with creating paintings in the Kangra style.
• Beginning in the early 19th century, some Pahari painters received patronage from Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Sikh nobility in Punjab, where they painted portraits and other miniatures in a modified Kangra style that persisted through the middle of the century.

Salient features of this school of art:

• This school of art is distinguished by its delicate drawing and naturalistic quality.
• The Kangra style, which is distinguished by serene beauty and delicate execution, is unquestionably the most poetic of all Indian styles.
• The most distinguishing aspect of this style is the way in which the female face is defined, with a straight nose that is parallel to the forehead, a trend that began in the 1790s.
• The most popular themes that were painted were the Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, Nala Damayanti, Bihari Satsai, Ragamala and Baramasa

Deccani School

About

• The Deccan painting was created in the Muslim capitals of the Deccan sultanates that emerged from the dissolution of the Bahmani Sultanate by 1520 in the Deccan region of Central India. Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar were among them. The main period was from the late sixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century, with a revival of sorts in the middle of the eighteenth century, which by that time was centred on Hyderabad.
• The Deccan painting outperforms the early Mughal art that was developing concurrently with the north in “the brilliance of their colour, the sophistication and artistry of their composition, and a general air of decadent luxury.” Other differences include painting “tall women with small heads” wearing saris and “poorly modelled” faces in three-quarter view rather than mostly in profile in the Mughal style. Although there are many royal portraits, they do not accurately depict their Mughal counterparts. The representation of buildings is as “totally flat screen-like panels.”

Sub-schools in the Deccani school of painting:

Ahmednagar

• A collection of poems written in honour of Hussain Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar (1553–1565) and his queen contains the earliest examples of the Ahmednagar painting.
• This manuscript, titled “Tarif-in-Hussain Shahi,” dates from the years 1565 to 1569 and is kept at the Bharat ltihas Samshodaka Mandala in Poona.
• The “Hindola Raga” from around 1590 AD and portraits of Burhan Nizam Shah II of Ahmednagar (1591–96 AD) and Malik Amber from around 1605 AD, both found in the National Museum in New Delhi and other museums, are some additional fine examples of the Ahmednagar painting.
• Persian influence – high horizon, gold sky, and landscape.

Bijapur

• Ali Adil Shah, I, and his successor Ibrahim II in Bijapur were patrons of the painting.
• The Najum-al-ulum (Stars of Sciences), an encyclopedia that is now housed in the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin, was illustrated in 1570 AD during the reign of Ali Adil Shah I. an 876 miniatures in this manuscript
• The women depicted in the illustrations are tall and slim and are dressed in South Indian attire.
• The Deccani tradition is represented by the vibrant colour scheme, the palm trees, the animals, and both men and women. The Persian tradition is reflected in the lavish use of the colour gold, some flowering plants, and the arabesques on top of the throne.
• Some exhibit the Lepakshi temple murals’ influence, especially in how women are portrayed.

Golconda

• The earliest paintings recognized as being by Golconda are a collection of five charming works from around 1590 A.D. that are housed in the British Museum in London and were created during the time of Muhammad Quli Quta Shah (1580-1611) Golconda.
• They show dancing girls entertaining the company.
• The Golconda painting “Lady with the Myna bird,” which was created around 1605 A.D., is yet another outstanding example.
• Both the southern tradition of the Vijayanagar murals, as seen in the treatment of female types and costumes, and the northern tradition of pre-Mughal painting, which was thriving in Malwa, were influenced by this school of painting. The treatment of the horizon gold sky and landscape also shows the Persian painting’s influence. In contrast to the northern painting, these colours are vibrant and rich.

Hyderabad

• The establishment of the Asafjhi dynasty by Mir Qamruddin Khan marked the beginning of painting in Hyderabad.
• The style of the painting is decorative.
• The miniature exhibits typical Deccani facial types and attire, as well as rich colours, which are hallmarks of Hyderabadi paintings. It was created during the third decade of the 18th century.

Tanjore

• In South India during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a painting style characterized by bold drawing, shading strategies, and the use of pure and brilliant colours flourished at Tanjore.
• Indian Thanjavur paintings stand out from other types of paintings due to their dense composition, rich surface, and vibrant colours.
• Then, to further enhance their appeal, they are embellished with pearls, glass, and semi-precious stone accents. They appear to be three-dimensional due to the relief work. India’s Tanjore Painting originated back in the sixteenth century.
• From the 16th to the 18th centuries, Maratha princes, Nayakas, Rajus communities of Tanjore and Trichi, and Naidus of Madurai were also patrons of Indian Thanjavur Paintings.
• The majority of these paintings are based on saints and Hindu gods and goddesses.
• The central figure of the painting is always the main subject. Tanjore paintings are known as “Palagai Padam” in the area because they are typically created on solid wood planks (palagai meaning wooden plank and Padam meaning picture).

Kalamkari

• One of the most renowned traditional styles from Machilipatnam in Andhra Pradesh is Kalamkari. The word “Kalamkari” literally means artwork done with a pen, derived from kalam, meaning pen. This intricate technique uses a fine-pointed bamboo pen, or kalam, to guide the flow of colors as artists paint directly onto fabric. Before applying the vegetable-based dyes, the pen is dipped in a solution of fermented jaggery and water, enhancing the absorption of the natural pigments. The designs are created either by hand painting or block printing, resulting in exquisite textiles rich with storytelling, tradition, and environmental harmony.
• Vegetable dyes were used to create the hues on the cotton cloth. The pictures were drawn by hand and were inspired by Hindu mythology. The cartwheel, lotus flower, animals, and interlacing patterns of flowers and leaves are among the motifs used by the artisans.

Patna Kalam Art

• Watercolour-based works deal exclusively with themes of a common man. It was promoted by Akbar and adopted by the Britishers in the 19th century.

Pichai

• The painting belongs to the state of Rajasthan. Cloth paintings of Lord Krishna and used as a backdrop for his idol at Nathdwara temple, Udaipur.

Thangka Paintings

• It’s a traditional Tibetan painting. Buddha paintings are created in this style of art on cotton or silk fabrics. It is divided into three categories: ceremonies and everyday practice, glimpses into the Buddhist lifestyle, and Tibetan Buddhist wall paintings. Thangkas were first used as a symbol of adoration to represent Buddhism’s highest ideals.
• Young Tibetan monks created silk scrolls on canvas using vegetable and mineral colours, which were then framed in silk brocades. Every hue used in the artwork has a distinct meaning. After it is finished, the painting is typically framed with vibrant silk brocade.

Manjusha Paintings

• This art form originated in the Bihar region of Bhagalpur. Another name for it is Angika art, where ‘ang’ stands for one of the Mahajanapada. Since there are always snake patterns visible, it is also known as snake painting. These paintings were created on paper cartons and jute.

Madhubani Paintings

• Major folk painting of Mithila region of Bihar state. Also called Mithila painting. It is a prominent painting of the Mithilanchal region in Bihar, Madhubani and some regions of Nepal, such as Darbhanga. Artists narrate mythological and religious events. In this style of folk painting, the scenes of Ramayana and the images of Hindu God-Goddesses are depicted on the canvas. Mahasundari Devi is a famous artist of Madhubani painting.
• This painting developed into a Rangoli in the early days and later this art gradually descended on clothes, walls and paper into modern form. Men have also adopted this domestic painting commissioned by the women of Mithila.
• There will be images of Hindu deities, natural scenes such as the sun and moon, religious trees and plants such as Tulsi, and marriage scenes. There are two types of Madhubani paintings – mural painting and Aripan or Alpana.
• It is a tradition to make it at three special places in the house, such as the place of worship, the Khobar Room (in the married room), and at a marriage or any special celebration on the outer walls of the house. The paintings all have a common theme and are usually inspired by Hindu religious motifs such as Krishna, Rama, Durga, Lakshmi, and Shiva.
• The figures in the picture are symbolic; for instance, a fish represents good fortune and fertility. Paintings of auspicious occasions such as births, marriages, and festivals are also created. To fill in any gaps in the painting, flowers, trees, animals, and so on are used.
• On a base of cow dung and mud, these were traditionally painted on walls with rice paste and vegetable colours. With time, the foundation shifted to handmade paper, clothing, and canvas, with natural colours remaining. The paintings appear two-dimensional due to the lack of shading. The double line border, intense use of colour, intricate floral patterns, and exaggerated facial features are all prevalent aspects of these paintings.
• Paintings are thought to have originated during the Ramayana period when the ruler of Mithila instructed his subjects to paint the walls and floors of their homes in honour of Sita and Rama’s marriage. The people believed that by doing so, the Gods would be pleased.

Phad Painting

• Phad painting belongs to the state of  Rajasthan. The art prints of historical figures like Goga Chauhan, Prithviraj Chauhan, Amar Singh Rathore and Teja Ji. They are scroll paintings on long rectangular cloth. The story of Pappu Ji and Narayandev Ji’s lives is primarily portrayed in modern times.
• They are painted with vegetable colours on a lengthy piece of cloth known as a phad and are either 15 feet or 30 feet long. Wide eyes and round features characterise the subjects. They frequently include tales that are pompous and upbeat in addition to pictures of the parade.

Warli Paintings

• The marriage god Palghat, his horse, and the bride and groom are depicted in some common folk art prints on the Warli paintings of the Adivasi Warli people in Maharashtra. These paintings are unique since they feature wedding celebrations. A dance that men and women execute in circles and spirals around a musician is another common topic.
• In this kind of art, a chewed bamboo stick is used as a brush, and the colour is made from a mixture of rice paste and water gum.
• The perfect representation of Worli is made up of trees, birds, males, and females. These paintings are created by tribal women as part of a ritual on lucky days. These paintings have a mostly religious theme, employing simple, regional materials like rice Lehi and local vegetable gum as well as geometric shapes like squares, triangles, and circles over backgrounds of various colours.
• The Worli lifestyle tableau is beautifully displayed in simple shapes. Warli painting does not promote religious images, unlike other tribal art types, and thus presents a more secular form.

Pattachitra Art

• It is an Odishan folk painting. The Bhakti Movement served as inspiration for some of the PataChitra Paintings. The Sanskrit words patta, which means canvas or cloth, and Chitra, which means picture. The paintings incorporate classical and folk motifs, while the latter gives a slight edge. The painting’s substrate is treated with cotton, and the colours are created using natural ingredients such as lamp black, Hingula, Ramaraja, and burned coconut shells. The red or yellow outlines are first drawn with a brush rather than a pencil or charcoal and are then filled in with colours.
• The painting is varnished at the last to give it a glossy finish. The Jagannath and Vaishnava religions, as well as several Shakti and Shiva cults, are the inspiration for these artworks. Raghurajpur, Odisha, is a city noted for this kind of art. Images in the pattachitra paintings are reminiscent of the state’s mediaeval murals, especially those at Puri and Konark. Pattachitra on a palm leaf is known as tala pattachitra.
• Bold colours are used in many folk art prints to tell the tale of Radha-Krishna and Jagannath. They are still used today to decorate toys, masks, and playing cards made by the Ganjifa people. The subjects of the paintings include Subhadra, Balrama, Lord Jagannath, Dashavatara, and events from the life of Lord Krishna. They appear with a detailed outline in red, yellow, ochre, white and black colours.

Pithora Painting

• It is the folk painting of the Rathvas and Bhilalas tribes of Gujarati. It is more than a ritual rather than an art form.

Kalighat Pat Art

• These paintings were produced by rural migrants who lived in  Kalighat, Kolkata in the 19th century. Numerous Hindu Gods and other mythological figures are depicted in this genre of art. At that time, the major images in this artwork were depictions of figures from Hindu mythology and deities. This painting method is used by artists to illustrate episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other kimvadantis in long papers while they sing and narrate the illustration.
• Using brushes made of calf and squirrel hair, watercolours were painted on mill paper. The painted figures’ contoured shading and articulated movements give them the appearance of plaques on a white background. Over time, people frequently used these artworks to reflect societal sentiments. Romantic depictions of women, shifts in gender roles, and satirical artwork decrying the hypocrisies of the newly wealthy can all be found in more contemporary works.

Patua Arts

• Patua art, often known as Bengali art, has a long history. Local artists would tell Mangal Kavyas, or auspicious tales about Gods and Goddesses, as part of a long-standing tradition. Since ancient times, scroll painters, or patios, have travelled to other villages to sing their tales in exchange for food or payment. These paintings are done on pats or scrolls.
• These were once painted on a cloth to narrate religious stories, but now political and social statements are made by using poster paints on sewed-together pieces of paper. The majority of these patuas come from the state’s Midnapur district.

Patkar Paintings

• In Jharkhand, tribal people produce paintings known as “Patkar paintings,” also referred to as “scroll paintings.” They are considered one of the nation’s oldest painting schools. This traditional style of painting is related to Ma Mansa, one of the most important tribal deities.
• Among the social and religious practices portrayed in these paintings are charitable giving and holding yajnas. The question of what happens to human life after death frequently appears in Paitkar’s artwork.

Gond Painting

• Indian folk and tribal art make up this genre. People from the Gond community in Madhya Pradesh practise them.  For more than 1400 years, this art form has been practised. Typically, they show flora and fauna, people going about their daily lives, gods, holidays, and celebrations. They reproduce natural phenomena, historical events, ceremonies, and mythological tales. These paintings are strong, vivid, and colourful with a great deal of meticulous detail.
• The art form became so well-known because of Jangarh Singh Shyam, a Gond legend and flag-bearer of Gond art. The original origins of the colours utilised in Gond art were things like cow dung, sap from plants, charcoal, colourful earth, mud, flowers, and leaves. But nowadays, artists use synthetic colours such as acrylic colours, watercolours, oil paints, etc.

Tanjore Painting

• Ancient Indian folk art known as Tanjore or Thanjavur painting has its roots in the South Indian town of Thanjavur,that dates back to the year 1600. These paintings are well-known for their use of gold foil, which gives the piece a surreal appearance, their use of brilliant hues and semi-precious stones, as well as their beautiful panel painting on a wood board with a deity as the main subject.
• Hindu deities, saints, scenes from Hindu Puranas, Sthala-Puranas, and mythological subjects are among the principal themes of Tanjore paintings. Palagi Padam, which translates to “image on a wooden plank,” is another name for these panel paintings that were created on wooden planks.  Tanjore’s artwork is exquisitely lovely and graceful.

Cheriyal Scroll Painting

• The Telangana-born Nakashi art form has been adapted into the Cheriyal Scroll Painting aesthetic. These 40–45 foot scrolls are painted in a narrative style and primarily feature tales from Indian mythology, the Puranas, and the Epics. They are created with handwoven khadi cloth.
• The canvas or fabric is given special treatment with several coatings of a specially made solution, which stiffens the canvas and causes it to absorb colour, extending the life of the painting. The painters create the colours they use from natural materials, and they make the brushes from squirrel hair linked to sticks. The Krishna Leela, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Shiva Puranam, and Markandeya Puranam are some of the topics that frequently appear in Cheriyal paintings.

Kalamezhuthu

• Traditional Indian ritualistic art known as Kalamezhuthu is conducted at Kerala’s temples and sacred woods. For the blessings of gods and goddesses like Kali, Ayyappan, Bhadrakali, snake god, etc., it is practised as an offering. These deities’ representations are painted on the ground using natural colours and powders.
• A typical recipe calls for five different coloured powders: white rice flour, black charcoal powder, yellow turmeric powder, green powdered green leaves, and red turmeric-lime powder. The picture first begins from the centre and is developed outwards by the artist, who uses just his bare hands to create it.

Chittara Paintings

• This folk craft is practised by the female members of the Delaware group in the Sagar district of Karnataka. Yellow seeds and rice paste, two organic elements, were used to create it. Their homes, which are red mud hamlets, have murals on the walls and floors. Usually, these paintings depict scenes from the daily lives of tribal people, such as animals and birds, flowers used in pooja, rituals, gods, socioeconomic activities, gifts for children, etc.
• Natural resources like toasted rice, trees, vegetables, minerals, and rocks and stones provide them with their colour. Additionally, they paint with a delicate jute brush called a “Pundi.” This traditional artwork is generally produced on auspicious occasions and has intricate themes and geometric designs.

Saura Paintings

• This mural painting style of tribal art from the state of Odisha is strikingly similar to Warli paintings. The Saura tribe, one of the most well-known and historic tribes in the nation, is recognised for its use of the Saura paintings, commonly referred to as ikons. They hold great religious significance for these paintings.
• The primary god of the Sauras is honoured by these straightforward yet detailed paintings and sketches on the walls of village homes. The sun, moon, tree of life, humans, horses, and elephants are a few typical motifs.
• These Saura paintings are formed with a base of red or yellow ochre, and the brushes are made from sensitive bamboo stalks. Natural colours are employed, including those made from extracts of rice, white stone, coloured earth, tamarind seed, flower, and leaf mixes, and vermilion.
• The human body is depicted by two distinct triangles in Saura’s paintings, and there is no physical distinction between male and female features. The figures are also larger and less angular. Every Saura painting starts with a “fishnet” method, where the centre is initially filled up with patterns, designs, and people.

Bhil Art

• This is another tribal art form practised by the Bhils. The Bhils reside in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra and are highly superstitious people. The Bhil paintings are traditionally done on the clay walls of their village homes and neem sticks, twigs, and natural colours are used to do so.
• The bright and vibrant colours are extracted from turmeric, flour, vegetables, oil, and leaves. These Bhil paintings depict the everyday life of this tribe and they usually contain large shapes covered with uniform dots in numerous patterns and colours. These dots and patterns on a Bhil painting generally represent something that the artist wants like ancestors or deities. Some common depictions include nature, flora and fauna, Bhil deities, births and deaths, rituals, and festivals.
• Indian villages are frequently depicted in folk art. Topics from epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, as well as everyday village life, birds and animals, and natural phenomena like the sun, moon, planets, and trees, characterise the pictorial expressions of village painters. Many regions of India still practise Indian folk art, which has been handed down through generations.
• A broad variety of art styles have developed over time due to their cultural diversity and individuality, some of which have remained unaffected by modernization and others which have adapted to new paint colours and materials. Numerous groups, people, and initiatives are attempting to conserve folk paintings as a link to India’s history and traditions.

The emergence of the Bengal school of Art

• Traditional Indian painting techniques had lost favour during the British Raj, when the British crown ruled the Indian subcontinent, largely because they did not suit the tastes of British collectors.
• Company Paintings, which catered to British sensibilities, were widely promoted in addition to the European painting techniques and subjects that were taught in art academies.
• Company Paintings depicted Indian subjects such as native plant life or customary dress and rituals using both the European aesthetic and painting conventions.
• Rather than celebrating Indian cultural traditions, it simplified them into exotica.
• By drawing on Mughal influences, Rajasthani, and Pahari styles to present elegant scenes of uniquely Indian customs and daily life, the Bengal School emerged to combat such imagery.

The Main features of the Bengal School of Painting

• Based on Indian Traditions: The Bengal School is entirely based on the Indian traditional style because it teaches subjects related to Indian culture.
• The paintings based on Indian themes like ‘Mahakali, ‘Shiva Parwati’, Krishna and Gopis, etc. prove the Bengal School’s Indian mentality.
• Influence of Ajanta Paintings: Ajanta Art has an influence on Bengal Schools. Bengal School exhibits Ajanta Art characteristics like rhythm, grace, harmony, etc.
• Linear Delicacy: The lines of Bengal School resemble the Ajanta Paintings. Lines are delicate and rhythmic.
• Softness and Rhythm in Figures: Bengal School’s figures have a soft appearance; they lack hardness. They are delicate and graceful. These are rhythmic and give the eyes a pleasurable experience.
• Beautiful Colour Scheme: Bengal School’s colours are very appealing. The Wash technique is employed, and the colours aren’t at all garish or bright.
• Influence of Mughal and Rajasthani Schools: Mughal and Rajasthani Schools’ influence can also be seen in some places.
• Light and Shade: The softness in the paintings of Bengal School is due to its quality of brilliant light and shade.

Madhubani

Madhubani painting, which hails from Bihar, is renowned for its bold geometric patterns and vibrant colour palette, often portraying scenes from mythology and folklore.

Warli

Warli art, a tribal painting style from Maharashtra, is recognized for its minimalist white linear motifs drawn on mud walls. These depictions reflect everyday life, nature, and social rituals, capturing the essence of rural community life.

Pattachitra

Originating in Odisha and West Bengal, it is a traditional cloth-based scroll painting form known for its intricate details and mythological narratives.

Prehistoric and Neolithic Pottery

During the Prehistoric and Neolithic periods, the earliest forms of pottery began to emerge. Archaeological findings from these times point to clay vessels crafted mainly for everyday needs—such as cooking, storing, and transporting food and water. These primitive creations were handmade, shaped by hand, and fired using basic kilns or open flames.

Harappan (Indus Valley) Pottery

As we move into the Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization, pottery saw remarkable advancements. Artisans of this era displayed sophisticated craftsmanship, producing well-fired pottery that was often polished to a high gloss and adorned with painted decorations. These vessels, featuring geometric shapes and intricate designs, were not only practical but also valued for their beauty and artistic appeal.

Vedic Period Pottery

The Vedic period introduced further developments in Indian pottery, marked notably by the emergence of Painted Grey Ware. This style was recognized by its grey-toned surfaces and painted motifs. Many of these patterns drew inspiration from Vedic myths and legends, offering a window into the cultural values and beliefs of the time.

Mauryan Period Pottery

Pottery from the Mauryan period is regarded as one of the finest examples of ancient Indian craftsmanship. This era introduced Northern Black Polished Ware, known for its glossy finish, smooth texture, and rich black hue. The exceptional quality and artistry of these pottery items played an integral role in the thriving trade networks of the Mauryan Empire.

Gupta Period Pottery

The Gupta period, often hailed as the Golden Age of India, brought pottery to new levels of artistic sophistication. There was a distinct shift towards sculptural elements in pottery, with the introduction of new forms and designs. The abundant use of ornate figural decorations in pottery during this time reflects the cultural and economic flourishing of the Gupta era.

Pottery in Southern India Sangam Period

Meanwhile, the Sangam period marked an important phase in the evolution of pottery in Southern India. The pottery of this time, crafted from high-quality clay, was noted for its intricate designs and vibrant colors. The skill and precision of the potters were evident in the finely made pottery items, which ranged from functional vessels to decorative figurines.

Islamic Influence on Pottery

The arrival of Islamic rule brought a significant shift in India’s pottery traditions. This era marked a fusion of indigenous styles with Persian techniques, giving rise to a new wave of glazed pottery.

Glazed Pottery

Glazed pottery, characterized by its smooth, lustrous finish, became highly popular during the medieval period. This innovative technique not only enhanced the visual appeal of the pottery but also contributed to its durability. Often adorned with intricate floral and geometric patterns, this style represents a harmonious blend of both form and function.

Mughal Period Pottery

During the Mughal rule, pottery in India reached its peak, thanks to the royal patronage. This period saw the emergence of famous blue pottery, miniature paintings on ceramics, and a unique fusion of Persian and Indian motifs. The Mughal era, known for its cultural and aesthetic richness, left a lasting influence on India’s pottery traditions.

Terracotta Pottery

Terracotta, meaning ‘baked earth,’ is one of India’s most ancient and widespread forms of pottery. Known for its distinctive brownish-red hue, it originates from India’s rural heartland. These terracotta items, which range from simple household utensils to intricate sculptures, reflect the native craftsmanship and expertise of Indian potters.

Black Pottery

Black pottery holds a special significance in India’s pottery tradition. Originating from areas such as Nizamabad in Uttar Pradesh and Azamgarh, it is renowned for its metallic sheen, deep black color, and silver accents. The unique black finish is achieved by reducing the oxygen during the firing process, creating a striking play of light and shadow on the surface.

Red and Black Pottery

Red and black pottery, commonly found in regions like the Gangetic plains, features a remarkable dual-toned design. This pottery, with its vibrant red interior and rich black exterior, is created using a specialized firing technique that alters the oxidation state of the clay, producing its signature color combination.

Blue Pottery

Blue pottery, a signature craft of Jaipur, is a type of pottery that remarkably does not involve the use of clay. Instead, it is made from a dough of powdered glass, Fuller’s earth, borax, gum, and water. Known for its beautiful blue dye, intricate designs, and high resistance to cracking, blue pottery is a true gem in the crown of Indian pottery traditions.

Earthenware, Stoneware, and Porcelain

These three categories represent the different types of pottery based on the firing temperature and the quality of the clay used. Earthenware is fired at lower temperatures and is often porous and less sturdy. Stoneware is fired at higher temperatures, making it harder and more durable. Porcelain, known for its white, translucent quality, is made from a special kind of clay called kaolin and fired at the highest temperatures.

Blue Pottery of Jaipur

Jaipur, famously known as the ‘Pink City,’ is also celebrated for its distinctive blue pottery. This art form, introduced by the Mughals, has flourished in Jaipur, where artisans craft beautifully glazed, blue-dyed pottery that is highly coveted by both tourists and collectors.

Terracotta of Bishnupur

Bishnupur, a charming town in West Bengal, is renowned for its terracotta temples and pottery. The local artisans expertly shape the abundant clay into various items, ranging from cooking utensils to decorative pieces. Bishnupur’s pottery is characterized by its warm, earthy tones and intricate representations of mythological and social narratives.

Khurja Pottery

Khurja, located in Uttar Pradesh, boasts a rich tradition of pottery that dates back over 600 years. Often referred to as the ‘Ceramics City,’ Khurja is famous for its vibrant and vividly colored pottery. The local potters employ traditional methods to create a diverse range of pottery products, including bowls, vases, plates, and ornamental pieces.

Morbi-Wankaner Clay Work

In the state of Gujarat, the towns of Morbi and Wankaner are known for their traditional clay work. This pottery style is characterized by intricate designs, deep carvings, and the use of vibrant colors. The clay artists here create a variety of items such as clay toys, pots, and decorative pieces, keeping alive a centuries-old craft tradition.

Pokaran Pottery

Pokhran, a small town in Rajasthan, is known for its unique pottery style. Using locally available clay and traditional pottery techniques, the artisans here create a range of pottery items. What sets Pokhran pottery apart is its distinctive glaze, a mix of raw mustard and glass, which gives the pottery its characteristic glossy finish.

Other notable pottery centers

There are several other notable pottery centers in India, each with its unique style and tradition. These include the black pottery of Nizamabad, the earthenware of Karigiri, and the tribal pottery of Bastar, to name a few.

Hand building

Hand building is one of the fundamental pottery techniques, where the clay is shaped using only the hands and basic tools. This approach, which includes methods like pinch pottery, coil building, and slab construction, offers a great deal of personal expression and creativity in the process.

Wheel Throwing

Wheel throwing, a more advanced pottery technique, involves shaping the clay on a rotating wheel. This method demands precision and skill, allowing the creation of symmetrical and evenly shaped pottery pieces.

Slip Casting

Slip casting is used to form intricate shapes that are difficult to achieve with other techniques. In this process, liquid clay, known as slip, is poured into a plaster mold, where it is left to set before the finished piece is removed.

Firing Techniques

Firing is a crucial step in the pottery making process, as it transforms the soft, malleable clay into a hard, durable object. Different firing techniques, such as open fire, kiln firing, and smoke firing, are used depending on the desired finish and the type of clay used.

Pottery in Rituals and Festivals

Pottery holds great cultural and ritual significance in India. Whether it’s the earthen lamps lit during Diwali, the terracotta horses offered to village deities, or the painted pots used in Pongal celebrations, pottery is deeply embedded in Indian customs and festivities.

Pottery in Trade and Economy

Beyond its cultural importance, pottery plays a vital role in the Indian economy, particularly at the grassroots level. It provides a livelihood for countless artisans and significantly contributes to local trade and tourism.

Pottery in Daily Life

In everyday life, pottery is indispensable in Indian households. From cooking vessels and storage jars to decorative pieces and architectural elements, pottery is a constant presence in the daily routines of many Indians.

Modernization and Changing Lifestyles

The rise of modernization and shifting lifestyles has presented substantial challenges to the traditional pottery industry. As demand for machine-made, standardized products increases, handmade pottery is struggling to compete.

Competition from Industrial Products

Additionally, industrially produced items, which are often more affordable and readily available, further threaten the survival of traditional pottery craftsmanship.

Lack of Institutional Support

A major hurdle for the pottery industry is the lack of institutional support. Barriers such as limited access to markets, inadequate training and development opportunities, and insufficient financial aid often hinder the growth and sustainability of this age-old craft.

Revival Efforts and Modern Innovations

Despite the challenges, there are ongoing efforts to revive and promote the pottery craft. Innovations in design and technique, along with a growing awareness and appreciation of handmade products, are opening up new opportunities for the pottery industry.

Impact of Tourism and Global Exposure

Tourism and global exposure have become crucial in promoting Indian pottery. Both domestic and international tourists are increasingly drawn to pottery as a distinctive cultural souvenir, boosting demand and market prospects.

Details

• The Indus Valley Civilization, also referred to as the Harappan Civilization, was one of the earliest urban civilizations in the world, flourishing around the Indus River basin.
• The architecture of the Harappans is considered groundbreaking for its time. Notable archaeological sites from this period include Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, as well as Lothal, Surkotada, and Dholavira—all of which are located in Gujarat.

Features

• Town Planning: Indus cities were well planned. The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have shown a lot of evidence of this. The city had two parts, i.e., the citadel and the outer city. 

• Citadel: The citadel was built on an elevated area. While certain major cities, such Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Lothal, and Dholavira, had a citadel and lower town, this was not the case in the majority of them. 
  • The outer city was at a lower level.  
• Roads: The roads were wide and straight cutting each other at right angles. 
• Drainage System: They also had a perfect drainage system. 

• Drains: Each house had a well-constructed sink from which water flowed into the underground drains. 
• The hydraulic engineering skills of the Harappans were expert. They created the successful system.
• To facilitate self-cleaning, the drains were built with drops at regular intervals.
• The small drains went into huge drains, while the private drains went into smaller drains. The huge drains transported all of the city’s waste water to ponds or open spaces outside.

• Some sewers had huge bricks or stones covering them. The crucial parts of the drainage system included soakage jars, man-hole cesspools, etc.

• Houses: Houses were of different types, small and large.

• Burnt bricks: Burnt bricks were extensively’ used. 

• Wells and bathrooms: Houses were also provided with ‘wells and bathrooms.

• Gateways: The gateways were of two types, one simple entrance for vehicular activities while the other had some special importance.

• Water management: The Harappan people’s-built canals to increase productivity and protect their crops from unfavourable weather.

• They also built a hydraulic device to collect it for rainwater. At several locations, some evidence including dams, canals, and reservoirs was discovered.
• Building a synthetic dock for berthing ships was the Lothal engineers’ greatest contribution to the advancement of science and technology.

• Great Bath: The Great Bath is one of the most remarkable structures discovered at the archaeological site of Mohenjo-Daro. It is located east of the granary, a significant building complex in the ancient city. The floor of the bath has five levels. It is still functional today. It was probably used for religious celebrations and events.

Stupas

The term Stupa is widely used by Buddhists. Stupa is a Sanskrit word that means “pile-up” or mound. Therefore, Stupa is an earthen mound heaped over the remains of dead. In that sense, it is a burial monument.

Features –

• The Stupa structure of pre-Common Era was composed of a hemispherical dome called anda. 

• The dome was erected on a low platform of stone. 

• It was surmounted by a kiosk with railing called Harmika. 

• It was further crowned by three discs (Chatras) of reducing sizes, the smallest being on the top. 

• The Chatras were mounted on a supporting mast called Yasti. A circumambulatory path called Pradaksinapatha encircles the Stupa. 

• It was meant to undertake sacred circumambulation on the ground level. The entire complex was then fenced by a railing called Vedika. 

• Examples: Stupa architecture of Andhra Pradesh, Stupas of Amrawati and Nagarjunikonda, both on river Krishna, have box like projections on all the four cardinal directions of the Stupa. 

Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)

• It features an upper and lower Pradakshinapatha. 
• It showcases four beautifully decorated Toranas depicting events from Buddha’s life and the Jataka tales. 
• The stupa’s figure compositions display high relief with naturalistic postures and prominent projection of heads
• The stupa’s foundation was most likely set by Ashoka.

Amravati Stupa (Andhra Pradesh)

• Its surfaces were carved in the Bharhut style, but some characteristics of the Mathura and Gandhara sculptures were also adopted. 
• It has carved panels narrating the story of the life of Buddha.
• Limestone with a white marble finish was utilised in the building.

Rock Cut Caves

The rock-cut caves of Barabar and Nagarjuni hills, along with the Swarna Bhandar cave in Rajgir, Bihar, are among the oldest in India and date back to the Mauryan period. 

• The Barabar and Nagarjuni caves were dedicated to the Ajivika sect founded by Gopala, a contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira. 
• Lomas Rishi cave, an early example, replicates unknown wooden architecture using grooved rafters and curved frames and finials, screens and low-relief sculptural decorations. 
• an Age also witnessed the Buddhist rock-cut architecture.

Chaityas-Grihas and Viharas

The Chaitya-Grihas and the Viharas are two major types of the Buddhist rock cut architecture. 

Though the process required much skill and patience, the technique involved in creating rock-cut architecture was simple. 

• The chaityas belonging to the period from 2nd century BCE to around 50 BCE do not depict Buddha in human form, rather he was represented by symbols alone. 

• These symbols were associated with the life of Buddha himself, like stupa, Vajrasana (his seat of meditation), Pipal Tree or Bodhi Vriksha, feet, turban, etc.

• While some of the main rock-cut caves of the Mahayanists are Cave nos. 19 and 26 at Ajanta and the Vishwakarma cave no.10 at Ellora, the main Hinayanist rock-cut caves are at Bhaja, Kondane, etc

Viharas

Vihara, etymologically meaning ‘dwelling place’ was meant for the Buddhist monks. 

• The rock-cut vihara comprises of a central hall for worship and a few cells around it for the monks to live in. The square or rectangular hall is entered through a rock-cut doorway and a pillared verandah.

• Hinayanist viharas are majorly found in the Western Ghats, at sites like Ajanta and Ellora. 

• Hinayana viharas also include those at Bedsa, Kondane and Pitalkhora, and cave no. 3, 8 and 15 at Nasik. The highly decorated facades, i.e., frontals as well as sculptural panels and friezes are the noteworthy elements of these viharas.

Nalanda University: 

An ancient mahavihara in India, known from Xuan Zang’s writings, founded in the 5th century CE by Kumargupta I.Sirpur In Chhattisgarh: It is an early-Odisha style structure from the 550–800 era that has both Hindu and Buddhist shrines.

Ellora caves

• Cave number 15 of Ellora belongs to the period of Rashtrakuta Dantidurga.

• Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu are mostly represented in this cave in many forms. This two-story building features a sizable courtyard where a monolithic Nandi mandapa is located.

• Great Kailasa temple of Cave 16 at Ellora was carved under the direction of Krsna I (CE 757-83), the successor of Dantidurga. 

• The Kailasa temple is a magnificent example of rock-cut architecture. It is a huge temple complex with walled compound. It consists of the entrance gateway (mukha- mandapa), the oblong (gopuram) with barrel-vault (sikhara), Nandi Madapa and Garbha- grha. The temple is west facing and rests on a raised rectangular platform in east-west direction.

• The history of rock cut architecture at Ellora is older than the arrival of the Rashtrakutas. Cave number 1 to 10 and Cave 21 belong to the period of the Kalacuris of Mahismati.

Ajanta Caves

• They are collection of 29 rock-cut caves near the Waghora River in Maharashtra, developed between 200 BCE and 650 CE with Vakataka dynasty patronage for Buddhism.

Elephanta Caves

• These Caves in Mumbai date back to the eighth century AD. The three-faced figure of Shiva is a masterpiece, along with depictions of Ravana shaking Kailasa, Shiva and Parvati’s marriage, the Tandava dance, and Ardhanariswara.

Nagara Style Temples 

Nagara style temples are the north Indian temples with curvilinear shikhara. They are majorly recognised as temples built by Guptas, Chandelas, Odishan temples, temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat and temples of Rajput period.

Features

• Tallest Tower: The tallest tower is always exactly beneath the garbhagriha.
• The installation of Amalaka or Kalash on Shikhara is a distinguishing element.
• Examples: Kandariya Mahadev Temple in Madhya Pradesh, Sun Temple in Konark and Sun Temple in Modhera, Gujarat.
• A main Rekha-Prasad Shikara and one or more rows of smaller steeples are located on either side of the main spire. Mini Shikaras are also present at the base and corners.

Dravidian Style Temples

Dravida style temples in South India have a stepped vimana with six or eight sides and a round stupi (well fashioned boulder) at the top.

Features: 

The Chola temples have some similar elements of the Pallava and Chalukya architectural traditions.

• A compound wall encloses the Dravida temple.
• Gopuram: A Gopuram, or entrance doorway, is located in the middle of the front wall.
• Vimana: Instead of the curved shikhara of North India, the vimana, or main temple tower, is shaped like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically in Tamil Nadu.
• Stupika: As with the amalak and kalasha of North Indian temples, the name “shikhara” is only used to refer to the crowning part at the top of South Indian temples, which is typically formed like a tiny stupika or an octagonal cupola.
• Entrance: The entrance to the garbhagriha is adorned with fierce Dvarapalas, or the doorkeepers, guarding the temple.
• Examples: Shiva temple of Thanjavu, Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Meenakshi temple in Tamil Nadu, Airavatesvara temple etc.

Vesara Temples

The most recognized of all the temples at Belur is the Cennakesava temple built by the Hoyasala king Visnuvardhana in CE 1117.

Features:

• These temples stand in an enclosure with a usual garbha-grha fronted by an antrala and a pillared mandapa known as navaranga/gudha-mandapa. 

• Some temples also have mukha-mandapa or sabha-mandapa. 

• The navaranga are specially known for its “lantern ceilings” because they have deep niches or domes constructed by means of stone beams placed diagonally across the corner of the square. The navaranga of the Amrtesvara temple has forty-eight domes with carvings.

• Examples: Brahmadeva temple, Savadi, remarkable for being entirely stellate; Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi (and Joda-kalasha temple); Ramalingesvara temple, Gudur; Mahadeva temple, Ittagi; Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi (and several other temples at Lakkundi);

The crowning achievement of Chalukyan architecture is the Virupaksha temple in Pattadakal, which was modelled after Kailashnath temple.

Stylish Evolution of Architecture 

About

Indo-Islamic architecture began with the Turks’ occupation of Delhi in 1192 AD. 

• Qutbuddin Aibak captured Lal Kot and constructed a Jami Masjid (1198). 
• Other structures like Qutab Minar (1199-1235), Arhai Din Ka Jhoupra (c. 1200), and Iltutmish’s tomb (1233-4) showcase Islamic details in decoration. 

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD) introduced Seljuk architecture. 

• Red sandstone was commonly used, seen in structures like Alai Darwaja and Siri Fort. 
• ‘Lotus-bud’ fringe under arches, a Seljuk feature, appeared.

Tughluq Dynasty saw a new architectural style. 

• Stone rubble as the main building material with plastered walls. 
• Battered walls and bastions, particularly noticeable at the corners. 
• An experimental use of the four-centered arch, often reinforced with a supporting beam. 
• Introduction of pointed domes with a distinct neck, in contrast to the previous style’s more subdued domes.

Lodhi Dynasty witnessed the development of double domes. 

• Multiple domes strengthened structures and reduced inner dome height. 
• Graves were austere, lacking ornate decoration. 
• Sikandar Lodi founded Agra and Lodi Gardens.

Provincial Style

Features

• They developed buildings in this style of architecture, which persisted for 250 years, using locally available materials and fusing regional designs with conventional Muslim characteristics like domes, arches, minarets, and mihrabs.
• They initially constructed on the remains of Hindu and Jain temples before creating their own architectural style.

Mughal Style

Features

• The Mughal style was a thriving architectural movement in India from the middle of the 16th century until the early 17th century.
• It is a distinctive fusion of Turkish, Persian, and Indo-Islamic design.

• The structures were excellent, strikingly symmetrical in form, homogeneous in pattern, and ornately decorated.

Forts

• In medieval times, constructing monumental forts with embattlements was a common practice, symbolizing the king’s seat of power and dominance. These imposing structures were strategically placed on commanding heights, making them both functional and awe-inspiring. Notable examples that continue to captivate visitors include the forts of Chittor, Gwalior, Daulatabad (formerly known as Devgiri), and Golconda.
• Forts like Daulatabad were built with advanced defensive features, such as staggered entrances designed to thwart enemy advances. These clever architectural elements ensured that even elephants could not force open the gates, highlighting the strategic brilliance behind these ancient military structures.

• It also had twin forts, one within the other but at a higher elevation and accessed by a complex defence design arrangement. 

• The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height made it impossible to scale. It had many habitations and usages. 

• An interesting aspect associated with forts is that within the palace complexes stylistic and decorative influences were absorbed most liberally.

Minars

In the subcontinent, another form of tower known as the minar was commonly seen. Two remarkable minars from medieval times are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad Fort.

Features: 

• The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or call to prayer. 

• It’s phenomenal height, however, symbolised the might and power of the ruler. 

• The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much-revered saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. 

• It is characterised by highly decorated balconies and bands of inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs.

• Chand Minar, built in the fifteenth century, is a 210- feet-high tapering tower divided into four storeys. 

• Painted peach now, its façade once boasted of chevron patterning on the encaustic tile work and bold bands of Quranic verses. 

Tombs 

Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty were a popular feature of medieval India. Some well-known examples of such tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanna in Delhi, Akbar and Itmad Ud Daulah in Agra. 

• According to Anthony Welch, the idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgement. 

• This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction. 

• Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the tomb was, subsequently, placed within paradisiacal elements such as a garden or near a body of water or both, as is in the case of the Humayun’s tomb and the Taj Mahal, which follows the charbagh style. 

Sarai

A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais which ringed cities and dotted the vast space of the Indian subcontinent. 

• Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan and were meant to provide temporary accommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc. 

• In effect, sarais were public domains which thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. 

• This led to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level of the people

Portuguese

Few places can rival the magnificence of Goa’s religious and secular architecture, which flourished as the prosperous seat of the Portuguese in India from 1530 to 1835.

• Among the surviving churches, the Church of the Holy Spirit stands out as one of the most significant examples of Goa’s architectural heritage.

• The Portuguese introduced Gothic and Baroque architecture in India.

• With its three floors and baroque design, the Basilica do Bom Jesus in Old Goa is reminiscent of late Renaissance architecture. 
• The large Golden Bell is housed at the Cathedral de Santa Catarina, which combines Tuscan and Corinthian architectural elements. 
• The Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, Convent of Santa Monica, Chapel of the Weeping Cross, Sanctuary of Saint Joseph Vaz, and other religious buildings constructed during their rule also heavily use Portuguese architectural elements.
• The Bandel Church, located on the banks of the River Hooghly in West Bengal, is another well-known Portuguese structure in India.

French 

• Numerous locations in India display Parisian architectural designs.
• French architecture utilised regionally-sourced materials and took local climatic factors into account.
• The French style included French shutter windows, carvings on archways, and thin street fronts.

British

• The British officer wanted to implement the Palladian style in the 18th century. Constantia, a well-known example of a structure in this style, was built by General Martin in Lucknow.
• A trend to incorporate the greatest features of Indian and Western architecture emerged in the 19th century. 
• Example: It can be seen in the Moor Market in Chennai and the Museum in Jaipur.
• The Gateway of India in Mumbai was designed by G Wittet, who used a number of Mughal features.

Physical Importance 

• Style of Building: The design and structure of buildings are heavily influenced by local climate and environmental conditions, ensuring they are well-suited to the surroundings.
• Materials: The materials used in construction are determined by what is locally available and the cultural and societal values of the community.
• Mood: The architectural design plays a crucial role in influencing the health, mood, and productivity of the occupants, creating environments that enhance well-being and efficiency.
• Architectural Evolution: Various eras and styles, from rock-cut to Indo-Islamic to colonial architecture.

Social Importance

• Societal Representation: Architecture reflects values and the rise and fall of civilizations. 
• Social Insight: Buildings provide insight into the lives of past inhabitants. 
• Cultural Significance: Architecture is a part of our culture and shapes our environment. 
• Disciplinary Nature: Architecture is a distinct discipline. 
• Conservation: Architecture preserves cultural and historic values. For example, the building material used in mosques is characteristic of Islamic architecture, which is distinct from that of temples
• Time Logs: Building materials act as records of artistic and construction evolution.

Political Importance

Politics and architecture have always had a symbiotic relationship with each other.

• Power Dynamics: Power play through architecture is not limited to only legislative buildings. For example: to assert their power on Hindu population, Islamic rulers builds mosque to show symbol of Islam.
• Economic Prosperity: Monuments like the Taj Mahal symbolize the economic wellbeing of a state. 
• Tourism Revenue: Preserved architecture attracts tourism, generating economic income. 
• Local Employment: Building ornamentation provides employment and fosters artistic talent.

Different Art forms of Indus valley Civilization

Details

Metal Sculptures of Indus Valley Civilization

• Harappan artisans were particularly skilled in bronze casting, using the lost-wax process to create intricate figurines. This technique, also known as cire-perdue, involves creating a mold from a wax model. Once the mold is prepared, the wax is melted and drained away, leaving a cavity into which molten metal is poured. A heat-resistant core can be used to create a hollow interior, ensuring that the molten metal doesn’t completely fill the mold, thus producing the desired hollow structure in the final piece.
• The bronze dancing girl statue discovered at Mohenjodaro is perhaps the greatest surviving achievement of the metal work of the Harappan age. This world-famous figure shows a female dancing figure standing as if relaxing after a dance, with her right hand on her hip and the left dangling free. She wears a large number of bangles, probably made of bone or ivory on her left arm together with a couple of pairs on her right arm.
• Bronze figures of a humped bull and a buffalo are the other metal sculptures made during this period.

Stone Sculptures of Indus Valley Civilization

• Several specimens of stone sculptures which were crafted during the civilization have been excavated. Out of these, two statues deserve a special mention and consist of the statue of the ‘Bearded Man’ and ‘Human Torso’.
• One will derive the idea of a high priest or a king clad in a shawl draped over the left shoulder, with a well maintained beard, if he observes the figure of the Bearded Man. Found in Mohenjodaro, it was made of Steatite
• Another impressive stone sculpted statue is that of a naked human male torso, made in red stone. The arms and head of this idol have been created separately. It was found in Harappa.

Terracotta Sculpture of Indus Valley Civilization

• Terracotta art was also practised by the people of Indus Valley.
• The figure of the Mother Goddess crafted in terracotta, discovered in Mohen-jo-Daro is one of the significant terracotta sculptures of this age.
• It consists of beautiful embellishments of the body and a punched nose, and reveals the concept of the Mother Goddess as a sign of prosperity and fertility.
• Terracotta seals were also manufactured. These seals included the carvings of peepal leaves, female figurine with forms of deities and animals.
• The toy animal, with a moveable head from Mohenjodaro, belonging to the same period i.e. 2500 BCE, is one of the most interesting objects found during the excavations.
• Large number of seals made of steatite, terracotta and copper of various shapes and sizes have also been discovered.
• The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2x 2 square inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite.
• Seals bear a great variety of motifs, most often of animals including those of the bull, with or without the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat etc. 
• Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted. The most remarkable seal is the one depicted with a figure in the centre and animals around. This seal is identified as the Pashupati Seal. This seal depicts a human figure seated cross-legged. An elephant and a tiger are depicted to the right side of the seated figure, while on the left a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen. In addition to these animals two antelopes are shown below the seat.

Beads and Ornaments

• The Harappan men and women decorated themselves with a large variety of ornaments produced from every conceivable material ranging from precious metals and gemstones to bone and baked clay.
• The bead industry seems to have been well developed as evident from the factories discovered at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Beads were made of cornelian, amethyst, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, Ancient stwrM in Sanchi etc.
• Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay were also used for manufacturing beads. The beads are in varying shapes—disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrelshaped, and segmented. Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together, some of stone with gold covers. Some were decorated by incising or painting and some had designs etched onto them. Great technical skill has been displayed in the manufacture of these beads.
• The Harappan people also made brilliantly naturalistic models of animals, especially monkeys and squirrels, used as pin-heads and beads.

Pottery

• The potteries found at the excavation sites can be broadly classified into two kinds – plain pottery and painted pottery. The painted pottery is also known as Red and Black Pottery as it used red colour to paint the background and glossy black paint was used to draw designs and figures on the red background. Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical patterns were the recurring themes of the paintings.
• Most of the potteries that have been found are very fine wheel-made wares, with a very few being handmade. Some examples of polychrome pottery have also been found, though very rare. The potteries were used for three main purposes:
  • Plain pottery was used for household purposes, mainly storage of grains and water.
  • Miniature vessels, generally less than half an inch in size, were used for decorative purposes.
  • Some of the potteries were perforated – with a large hole in the bottom and small holes across the sides. They might have been used for straining liquor.

Foreign Influence on Mauryan Sculpture

• The influence of the Achaemenid Empire is visible in the design of Ashoka’s edicts, yet there is a notable difference between the Mauryan and Achaemenid pillars. While Achaemenid pillars were constructed in separate pieces by masons, Mauryan pillars were carved from solid rock.

Stupa Sculpture of Mauryan Empire

• The stupas, which are solid dome-like structures made from bricks and stones, were also a significant development during the Mauryan period. They were initially created as symbols of artistic tradition and served as a prominent feature in the Mauryan Dynasty’s architectural and religious legacy.
• The greatest instances of the architecture of the Mauryan period is the great Sanchi Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, surrounded by exquisitely carved stone railings around it.
• It is also famous and notable due to the four gateways called Toranas, since before this there was no such tradition of carving gateways. These gateways are elaborately carved and depict the various scenes from the life of Buddha and also about the lifestyle of people in that era.

Pillar Sculptures of Mauryan Empire

• The Pillars were one of the major works accomplished by Emperor Ashoka.
• The most famous Lion Capital (pillar showing fourlions) erected by Ashoka at Sarnath in sandstone realistically represents the artistic achievements of Indian artists and patronage of their masters.
• Two kinds of stone had been employed in the creation of the pillars which consisted of fine grained hard sandstone of Chunar region close to Varanasi as well as spotted white and red sandstone belonging to Mathura.
• Inscriptions containing principles of ‘Dhamma’ or righteousness were embedded on all these pillars. The Lion Capital at Lauria Nandangarh and Bull Capital of Rampurva are impressive sculptural art which evolved during the Mauryan Empire.

Figurine Sculptures of Mauryan Empire

• The whisk- bearer of Didarganj, female ‘Yakshi’ figurine of Besnagar and the male statue at Parkham are some of the famous figurine sculptures of Mauryan Empire.
• Numerous terracotta idols were also sculpted by the artisans and clay idols of Mother Goddesses have been discovered by some excavations conducted at Ahicchatra.
• The rock cut sculpture of Elephant in Dhauli, near Bhubneshwar in Odisha represents the fore-part of an elephant carved over the Edicts of Asoka, including the two specially meant for Kalinga.

Different Sculpture of this Empire

Details

Sculptures of Gandhara School

• The Gadhara region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an important centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century CE.
• Owing to its location the Gandhara School imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan.
• The Gandhara School of sculptures is also known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of Art were applied to Buddhist subjects.
• The most important contribution of the Gandhara School of Art was the evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were executed in black stone and modelled on identical characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon.

Important characteristics of Gandhara school are:

• Depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated positions.
• The seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the traditional Indian way.
• Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and complex symbolism.
• Use of Grey stone and mainly Buddhist imagery.
• The best specimens of Gandhara art are from Jaulian and Dharmarajika stupa at Taxila and from Hadda near Jalalabad in modern Afghanistan. The tallest rock-cut statue of Lord Buddha is also located at Bamiyan in modern Afghanistan.
• Gandharan sculptures show strong Greek influences in the depiction of a ‘man-god ’ and of wavy hair, sandals and extensive drapery. Stucco plaster, which was commonly observed in Greek art , was widely used in Gandharan art work .
• However, Gandharan sculpture owes to Roman art too. Some of the features of Classical Roman art observed in Gandharan sculptures are vine scrolls, cherubs with garlands , tritons and centaurs. The draping of the robes on Buddha was also taken from Roman sculptures.

Sculptures of Mathura School of Art

• The Mathura School of art flourished at the city of Mathura between 1-3 CE and was promoted by the Kushans. It established the tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into human form.

Important characteristics of Mathura school are:

• They were depicted as strongly built with the right hand raised in protection .
• The figures produced by this school of art do not have moustaches and beards as in the Gandhara Art.
• Spotted Red sand stone mainly used.
• It not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon .
• Buddha is shown to be surrounded by two Bhodisattavas, Padampani holding a lotus and Vajrapani holding a thunder bolt.

Sculptures of Amaravati School of Art

• Amaravati School of art and sculpture evolved during the Satavahana period. Amaravati is situated on the banks of the Krishna River.
• It is the site for the largest Buddhist Stupa of South India.
• This school of art had great influence on art in Sri Lanka and South-East Asia as products from here were carried to those countries.

Characteristic features of Amravati school are:

• In the initial periods, Lord Buddha is depicted in the form of ‘Swastika’ mark. This has been carved out on the cushioned seat over a throne that is situated under the Bodhi tree.
• At a later stage the Amaravati School depicted Buddha in the human form.
• The figures of Amaravati have slim blithe features and are represented in difficult poses and curves. However the scenes are over-crowded.
• Use of white marble.
• The images of Lord Buddha from Alluru, Dharma Chakra from Lingaraja Palli, Bodhisattvas are some of the finest instances of the Amaravati School of art and sculpture.

Badami Chalukya Sculptures

• Badami sculptures closely resembled the Dravidian architecture. Two kinds of monuments developed under the Badami Chalukyas: rock-cut temples and structural temples.
• The features of Badami Chalukya sculpture include intricate stone works and outstanding figurines. Soapstone was widely used as the building material. Columned halls, pillared verandahs and ‘garbhagrihas’ are the main architectural elements of the Badami Chalukyas.
• The Badami Chalukya style of sculpture is a brilliant fusion of the Dravidian and Nagara styles of architecture and sculpture. Badami Cave Temple is one of the excellent examples of the fusion style of sculpture.
• The temples of Pattadakal, six of which boast of Dravidian architecture are also attractive instances of Badami Chalukya sculptures.
• Sculptures of Badami Chalukyas are quite famous and include those observed inside the premises of Sangameswarar Temple and numerable others located in Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal. Mahakuteshwara Temple, Papanatha Temple, Galganatha Temple, Kashivisvanatha Temple, Mallikarjuna Temple which are all in Pattadakal, Lad Khan Temple and Durga Temple in Aihole, Bhutanatha Group of Temples are amongst the innumerable temples which are decorated with different artistic forms of sculptures and architectural marvels.

Western Chalukyan Sculptures

• Western Chalukya sculptures followed the Dravidian architecture and sculpture style.
• The main features of Western Chalukya sculptures include the intricate and detailed stone works. Beautiful images of Gods and Goddesses have been carved on stone. The ‘mandapa’, the ‘vimana’ and the ‘gopurams’ display different kinds of patterns of sculptures.
• The temples bore testimony to the brilliant Western Chalukyan sculpture. The Dodda Basappa Temple, Kalleshwara Temple and Mallikarjuna Temple, Amritesvara Temple, Siddhesvara Temple etc. are marvellous instances of the sculptures which were prevalent during the reign of the Western Chalukyan rulers.
• Three principal types of sculptures developed under the reign of the Western Chalukyas are figure sculpture, deity sculpture and sculpture of the miniature towers, belonging to the various spectacular temples of that era.

Eastern Chalukyan Sculptures

• Eastern Chalukyas, also known as the Chalukyas of Vengi, were a dynasty that ruled parts of South India between the 7th and 12th centuries.
• The Eastern Chalukyas, following the Pallavaand Chalukya traditions, developed their own independent style of architecture, which is visible in the Pancharamashrines (especially the Draksharama temple) and Biccavolu temples.
• The Golingeshvara temple at Biccavolu contains some richly carved out sculptures of deities like Ardhanarishvara, Shiva, Vishnu, Agni, Chamundi and Surya.

Delhi Sultanate Sculptures

• The arrival of the Muslim dynasties in the 13th century began with the Slave dynasty, followed by the Khalji, Tughluq, Saiyyid, and Lodhi dynasties. Collectively, these formed what is known as the Delhi Sultanate.
• The monuments built during this period adhered to the distinct characteristics of Sultanate sculpture, which later blended with regional styles, giving rise to the unique form of Indo-Islamic architecture.
• One of the most significant contributions of Sultanate architecture was the introduction of two defining architectural elements: domes and pointed arches and beams, which became hallmarks of the Indo-Islamic style that followed.
• With the introduction of this new feature of the amalgamation of Hindu and Islam architecture a new experimentation in the Delhi Sultanate sculpture followed. From time to time new concepts were kept introduced. For example the double domes and enameled tiles.
• Terracotta sculpture remained popular even during the Muslim era.

Mughal Sculptures

• The Mughal sculptures emerged in India during 16th and 17th centuries. This school of architecture brought in the Persian influence on Indian art and architecture.
• Due to an amalgamated style a separate set of features of Mughal sculptures evolved. It was under the Mughal emperor, Akbar that the Mughal art and sculpture truly flourished. The Mughal architecture thus witnessed the construction of some of the most opulent buildings in its history.
• The sculptures during Akbar era comprised calligraphy and thick foliage designs. Architectural elements like domes, chhatris, jharokhas and arched gateways were primarily used. The tradition of constructing grand buildings continued.
• The Mughal monuments are famous for their pristine looks and intricate stone works. The brilliant craftsmanship of the artisans is evident from architectural wonders, such as Taj Mahal, Jama Mosque, the buildings within the Red Fort and others.
• The Mughals also introduced ceramic tile work, Pietra Dura inlay with coloured and semi-precious stones, carved and inlaid stonework. Foliage sculptures in between the arches are outstanding feature too.
• Shallow relief depictions of flowers to intricate pierced-marble screens known as jalis were part of the carved Mughal stone sculptures .
• The Mughal architecture and sculptures reached their zenith under the rule of Shah Jahan.
• One of the most prominent features of Mughal architectures was that it was successful in influencing the native style, especially the Rajput sculpture and architecture.

The word meaning of  Bharatnatyam

• Bha: Bhava which means emotions
• Ra: Rag meaning musical notes.
• Ta: Taal meaning the Rhythm.
• Natyam: The Sanskrit word for Drama.

The evidence of Bharatanatyam

• Silappatikaram (where its existence was mentioned in this ancient Tamil epic).
• Brihaddeshwara temple was a major center for Bharatnatyam since 1000CE.
• The Gopurams of Chidambaram display the poses of Bharatnatyam, chaaris, and Karanas that are carved in the stones.

The makeup used for Bharatanatyam

• Immense and charismatic makeup (hair as a single bun is tied just before the plaits).
• The eye-catching costume (bright colored Sari- today the costume comes in 7 pieces that are worn simply, for men – dhoti).
• Glowing ornaments.

The repertoire of Bharatanatyam

• Alarippu – Invocation
• Jatiswaram – Nritta part
• Shabdam – Short compositions with word
• Varnam – a story, that includes both Nritta and Nritya
• Padam – Religious prayer, Bhajan, Keertanam.
• Thillana – Origin in the Tarana of Hindustani Music
• Ends with Mangalam.

The music and instruments used for the Bharatanatyam

• Carnatic Style, Vocalists Called – Nattuvanar (normally Guru).
• Verses are usually in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit.
• Mridangam, Nadaswaram, Nattuvangam, Flute, Violin veena etc.

The revival of Bharatanatyam from ancient to modern day platform

Rukmini Devi Arundale created a Renaissance. Before her, this art was almost dead. She raised this art form to a Puritan form.

• Also, T.Balasaraswati ‘s efforts helped to uplift this art form to the form known today.
• Rukmini Devi founded the Kalakshetra in Adyar and thus gave a new hope to the promotion of this Dance form.
• The famous Bharatanatyam dancers are Yamini Krishnamurthy, Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, Saroja Vaidyanathan, Janaki Rangarajan Etc.

The specialties of Kathak

• Kathak is world famous for its spectacular footwork, amazing spins, Nazakat and Padhant (Chanting of bols, toda, tukdas by dancer himself and then performing). This is the distinctive feature of Kathak.
• It creates a nexus between the dancer and audience.
• The body movements are quite straight as compared to Bend movements of South Indian Dances.
• The heavy ghunghroos are worn by the Dancers – 100/200/250 on one leg.
• There is a wide variety of sounds are hidden in these ghunghroos like running train, heavy rains, Sound of Horse riding,( Ghode ki chaal) and much more. This adds more beauty to the performance.

The four main Gharanas, or schools of kathak dance 

• These are the Jaipur, Lucknow, Raigarh and the Benares gharanas.
• These schools are named according to the geographical area in which they developed.
• Each has a slight difference in interpretation and repertoire and can be recognized from their presentations.

The Sequence of Kathak dance   

1. Starts with Vandana ( Worshipping God).
2. Uthaan.
3. That.
4. Aamad (sequence of That Aamad Uthaan may be different in different gharanas).
5. Salaami.
6. Toda Tukdas.
7. Tihai.
8. Paran.
9. Gatnikas.
10. Gatbhaav (Story)
11. Ladi-Tatkaar(Footwork)
12. End with a Bhajan, Thumri, Tarana or Ashtapadi, Kajri, Chaiti, Chaturang etc.

The costume, makeup, and ornaments used for Kathak

• Traditionally, Sari, Ghagra-Choli, Chudidar Frock – Jacket, Dupatta for women and men can wear Chudidar Kurta and Dupatta tied at the waist.
• This dance-drama may have costumes as per the character.
• Makeup is not much heavy but is quite sharp and Fine to reflect the expressions. A bun or long plaits with garland looks beautiful.
• Mostly white—yellow pearl ornaments are used.

The music and instruments used for Kathak dance form

• Hindustani Music: Lyrics may be in Hindi, Brij, Sanskrit or any other regional language.
• Instruments like Pakhawaj, Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Harmonium, Flute, Sarod, etc. are used.

The revival of Kathak dance forms

• The value of this dance form diminished during the Moghul period but still, there were certain good technical changes like inclusion of Thumri in Kathak.
• The period of Nawab Wajidali Shah was a golden age for Kathak. He himself was a great artist and extensively promoted Kathak.
• The King of Raigarh Raja Chakradhar  Singh who himself was a Kathak dancer gave birth to Raigarh Gharana of Kathak—greatest contribution to Kathak.
• Achhan Maharaj, Shambhu Maharaj, Gopi Krishna, Pandit Birju Maharaj, Pandit Rajendra Ganagani ji, Sitara Devi, Rohini Bhate, Maya Rao, Mandvi Singh, Shama Bhate, Shovana Narayana and many more artists gave their priceless contribution in Kathak .
• Kathak Kendra Delhi, a constituent Body of Sangeet Natak Akademi and many other governments and private institutes all over the world strive hard continuously for the training and promotion of Kathak.

Two styles of traditional Odissi

1. Maharis (Devadasis or Temple Girls).
2. Gotipua ( Performed by Boys).

The sequence

1. Managalacharan (Worshipping Lord Jagannath or other gods, goddesses).
2. This will be followed by Pushpanjali (Offering of flowers) and salutation to mother earth. This also includes Trikhandi Pranam- Devas, Gurus, and Rasikas.
3. The next comes the Batu Nrutya—Fast dance pure dance which we call it as Nritta which is then followed by Nritya which include, Abhinay- Expressions on some devotional poems or songs.
4. The verses may be in Sanskrit or Odia language. Ashtapadis—Dashavtar, Ardhanari etc. Are quite famous.
5. Then comes the Dance Drama in sequence. The themes generally relate to the Hindu gods and goddesses. Modern day expressive theme presentations go beyond the horizon.

The costumes used for the Odissi dance forms

• It is made up of traditional material (Dhoti for men- Sari for women) from Odisha. Today fully stitched costume is available.
• A crown is worn by female dancers which are prepared in Jagannathpuri.
• White colored flowers are adorned on the bun.
• Like every other dance form, jewelry remains the same but is of silver colored. Ghunghroos too form part of this dance.    

The music and instruments used

• The South Indian, as well as North Indian Music, is employed for the dance.
•  The Pakhavaj, Tabla, Swarmandal, Harmonium, Sitar, Flute, Violin, and Cymbals.

The revival of Odissi dance forms

• Kelucharan Mahapatra, Gangadhar Pradhan, Pankaj Charan Das etc.revived this dance form in the late forties and early fifties.
• Sanjukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Kumkum Mohanty, Anita Babu, Sujata Mohapatra etc. contributed to the upliftment and popularization of Odissi.
• Recently, the Odissi has now been included in the syllabus of IIT Bhubaneshwar’s B.Tech syllabus since 2015. It became the first national technical institute to introduce any Indian Classical Dance form in their syllabus. 

Kuchipudi vs Bharatanatyam

• Bharatnatyam costume has three fans of dissimilar lengths. While Kuchipudi dress has only one frill/fan lengthier than the lengthiest fan in the former.
• In Bharatnatyam, there is no side Pallu but in Kuchipudi separate pallu is stitched seen on the left side.
• Two buns are used in Kuchipudi while only one in Bharatnatyam.

The repertoire of Kuchipudi

• The repertoire of Kuchipudi is similar to that of Bharatanatyam:
• Kuchipudi has a specialty called- ‘Tarangam’ in which the dancer performs on the top of the brass plates.
• And sometimes balances some pot on the head. This makes the dance form extremely unique.

The costume and makeup of  Kuchipudi

• The makeup is similar to that of Bharatnatnatyam.
•  A dancer in a female role would wear a Sari with light makeup. Today the stitched costume is available.
• The traditional Kuchipudi was performed by all males and their attire was quite simple ‘Angivastra’ also known as Bagalbandi and a dhoti.

The music and instruments used for the Kuchipudi dance

• Based on Carnatic music the language is usually Telugu.
• Mridangam, cymbals, veena, flute and Tambura.

The famous dancers in Kuchipudi

• Raja-Radha Reddy.
• Yamini Reddy.
• Vaijayanti Kashi.
• Uma Rama Rao etc.

The main themes used in Kathakali

• Mythological themes include Ramayan, Mahabharat, Bhagvat Purana, etc.
• Also modern day Kathakali dancers present stories and plays of Shakespeare.

The makeup for Kathakali

• According to the role of the dancer, his face is colored/painted.
• The colors are made in rice paste with vegetable colors and applied on the face.
• The Green for Noble characters.
• Tati (Red) for evil like Ravana.
• Kari (black) for hunters and monsters.
• Yellow for women etc.

The famous artists of Kathakali

1. Kalamandalam Krishna Prasad.
2. Kalamandalam Kesavan Namboodiri.
3. Kalamandalam Gopi etc.

The costumes for Mohiniyatam

• Mohiniyattam has a unique White/Off-White Costume.
• the prominent one-sided hairstyle (bun) also called as ‘Kuduma’.
• Adorable ornaments make it unique.

The sequence of Mohiniyattam

1. Invocation
2. Jatiswaram
3. Varnam
4. Shlokam
5. Shabdam
6. Padam
7. Tillana

The revival of Mohiniyattam

• In 1930, Nationalist Malayalam poet Vallathol Narayan Menon helped to repeal the ban on temple dancing in Kerala as well as established the Kerala Kalmandalam dance school and gave encouragement for its training and practice.
• Mukundraj, Krishna Panicker, Thankamony as well as Guru and Dancer Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma gave their heroic contribution in reviving the traditional art form.

The themes used in Manipuri dance forms

• Mostly influenced by Hindu Vaishnavism themes.
• It also includes themes related to Shaivism and Shaktism and regional deities.
• Tandav Manipuri depicts themes of Shiv, Shakti or Krishna as warrior.
•  Lasya theme includes Love inspired stories of Radha-Krishna.

The Manipuri Raslila: Three styles

1. Tal Rasak:  It is accompanied by clapping.
2. Danda Rasak: The synchronous beat of two sticks where dancers position creates geometric patterns.
3. Mandal Rasak: The Gopis make a circle while Krishna attains the center.

Different types of Manipuri Dance Styles

1. Raas.
2. Nata-Sankirtan.
3. Pung Cholam.
4. Dhola Cholam.
5. Kartal Cholam.
6. Thang ta ( a Martial art of Manipuri) etc.

The Music and instruments used in Manipuri dance

• The expressions used in Manipuri are from the poetry of  Jayadev, Vidyapti, Chandidas, Govindadas and Gyandas that may be in Sanskrit, Maithili, Brij or any other language.
• Pung ( A barrel Drum ) and small kartals (Cymbals) are employed in dance as well and not restricted to accompaniment alone.
• Other instruments include Sembong, Harmonium, Pena (String Instrument), Flute(Wind Instrument), Esraj and Shankh (conch).

The costumes of Manipuri dance

• The female dancers wear decorative barrel-shaped drum like long stiff skirt till bottom with decorative embellishments. Dark colored velvet blouse covers the upper part of the body and a traditional veil is worn over hair that falls gracefully over the face.
• The male dancers adorn themselves with dhoti kurta white turban, a folded shawl over the left shoulder and the drum strap over the right shoulder.
• The costume for the character of Lord Krishna is Yellow dhoti, dark velvet jacket, and crown of peacock feathers.

The revival and recent developments of Manipuri dance

• There are several private institutes as well as few Government aided centers that provide training in Manipuri Dance.
• The prominent among them is, Jawaharlal Nehru Manipuri Dance Academy, Imphal which is the constituent body of Sangeet Natak Akademi, Delhi.

Manipuri dancers

1. Guru Bipin Sinha.
2. Nirmala Mehta.
3. Savita Mehta.
4. Yumlembam Gambhini Devi.
5. Darshana Jhaveri and many others.

The themes and styles used in Sattriya

• The themes performed are mostly on Radha-Krishna and other myths.
• Dramas written by Sankardev are typically presented.
• Sattriya performance integrated two styles: One Masculine (Paurashik Bhangi — energetic and with jumps) and Feminine (Stri Bhangi—Lasya or delicate).
• Both male and female perform this beautiful, expressive dance openly on the modern platform.   

The costumes used for Sattriya

• Male—Dhoti, chadar, paguri (turban).
• Female—Ghuri, chadar, Kanchi (waist cloth) made up of materials manufactured in Assam.
• The play and Character specific costumes are also seen in Sattriya.
• Masks are used for special characters (like demons) sometimes.
• Traditional Assamese jewelry is employed.

The music and instruments used for Sattriya

• Borgeet of Sankardev and Madhavdev.
• Khol (two faced asymmetrical drum).
• Cymbals- Manjira Bhortal.
• Flute, Violin, Harmonium etc.

The revival of Sattriya dance

• Conventionally, it was only performed by ‘Bhokots’/‘Monks’ as a part of their daily rituals not before the idol but before the copy of Bhagvat Purana placed in the eastern corner of dance community hall (namghar).
• After the second half of the 20th century, this dance form moved from the den of Assam’s Monasteries to the modern day stage.
• Sattriya received patronage outside Assam and Outside India too.
• Sattriya Kendra Guwahati is a constituent body of Sangeet Natak Akademi established for preserving, promoting and providing training to young aspirants of Sattriya.
• Today Sattriya performances are a part of Major Dance Festivals in India and Abroad.

The famous Artists of Sattriya

1. Guru Indira P.P Bora.
2. Late Pradip Chaliha.
3. Jatin Goswami.
4. Anita Sarma etc.

Type of Chhau Dance

Origin

Any prominent information

Mask used or not

Description of Masks

Seraikella Chhau

Seraikela Kharsawan District of Jharkhand

• This art form was patronized by Local administrators who themselves were dance instructors as well as skilled mask makers.
• Martial Dance form performed by Men

Yes. Symbolic  Masks are used

Three Types: 1) Representing Human or mythological characters, 2) Represents animals and birds, 3) represents ideas and seasons like Basanta.

Mayurbhanj Chhau

Mayurbhanj District of Odisha

• No specific vocal music. It encompasses tribal, martial,  folk art, local art forms and even classical and traditional art form

No Mask.Technically similar to Seraikella.

Purulia Chhau

Purulia District of West Bengal

• This Chhau has only one message – The Triumph of Good over Evil.
• Stylized, acrobatic with amazing spins.

Yes

Mask represents characters from Hindu Mythology. Huge headgears are employed.

Important Informations Related to Chhau

The themes in Chhau

• Vaishnavism.
• Shaivism.
• Shaktism.

The costumes used in Chhau

• Bright colored costumes.
• Huge ornamental headgears.
• Masks depend upon the role you play in the story.

The music and instruments used for Chhau

• The music is based on folk melodies.
• Mohuri, Shehnai, Dhol, Dhumsa, Kharka or Chadchadi are few instruments employed to create the music.

The revival, recognition and recent developments of Chhau

• In 2010, Chhau was listed in the UNESCO’S Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
• The Government has established Government Chhau Centre in Seraikela in 1960 and Mayurbhanj Chhau Nritya Pratishthan at Baripada in 1962.
• The Sangeet Natak Akademi established a National Centre for Chhau Dance at Baripada, Odisha.

Dumhal (Jammu and Kashmir)

This age-old dance is still kept alive by the Rauf tribe of Jammu & Kashmir and is performed by men who wear long and colorful robes, accompanied by tall conical caps. The performers place a banner into the ground at a fixed location, and the dance is performed around this banner.

Hikat (Kashmir)

Performed in groups, the dancers hold each other’s hands and go around dancing in circles. The pace of their movement is adjusted according to the tempo of the music being played. Usually, it all begins slowly and the pace gradually picks up until the women gain full momentum.

Hurka Baul (Uttarakhand)

It is performed during maize and paddy cultivation in the state, this dance form is more of a storytelling. While a singer incorporates heroic stories of battles in his song, the dancers enact the stories with the help of their moves.

Chapeli (Uttarakhand)

Chapeli is a traditional dance of the Kumaoni region in Uttarakhand. It is a graceful, slow-paced dance performed by women during various cultural and social gatherings.

Nati (Himachal Pradesh)

Nati is a lively folk dance of Himachal Pradesh. It involves group dancing and singing in a circular formation. Dancers wear traditional Himachali attire and often use wooden sticks for rhythmic movements.

Bhangra (Punjab)

Bhangra is one of the most well-known folk dances of India, originating from the state of Punjab. It is a high-energy dance traditionally performed by men during the harvest season and other festive occasions. Bhangra features dynamic footwork, lively music, and distinctive costumes, including colorful turbans.

Giddha (Punjab)

Giddha is a folk dance from Punjab, primarily performed by women. It is a graceful and expressive dance that involves singing, clapping, and storytelling through dance movements. Giddha often centers around themes of everyday life and love.

Dhamyal (Haryana)

‘Dhamyal’ or ‘Dhuph’ is one of the most popular folk dances of Haryana. ‘Dhuph’ is a circular drum and is played by male dancers. The dance is performed as a part of a celebration after a long day’s work in the fields.

Raslila (Uttar Pradesh)

Raslila is a traditional dance drama that originated in the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh. It depicts the divine love story of Lord Krishna and Radha. Manipur, in the northeastern region, also has its form of Raslila, which is a classical dance drama.

Mayur Nritya (Uttar Pradesh)

This dance form is prevalent in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Also known as peacock dance, ‘Mayur Nritya’ is performed by dancers who wear specially designed clothes to resemble a peacock. It is performed while worshipping Lord Krishna.

Charkula (Uttar Pradesh)

It is a dance performed in the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh. ‘Charkula’ is a multi-tiered circular pyramid and it’s believed that Goddess Radha’s grandmother announced the birth of her granddaughter while balancing a ‘Charkula’ on her head. Hence women dancers carry huge ‘Charkulas’ which hold many lighted oil lamps.

Chhau (Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha)

Chhau is a tribal martial dance form that can be found in several states of Northern India, including Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha. Dancers often wear elaborate masks and perform acrobatic movements to depict stories from Hindu epics and tribal traditions.

Brita Dance (West Bengal):

‘Brita’ or ‘Vrita’ dance is usually performed to thank the local deity after recovering from a contagious disease – usually smallpox.

Dalkhai (Odisha)

The dance is performed by young women who are later joined by men, playing drums and other instruments. Interestingly, the men address the women as their girlfriends throughout the play.

Gotipua (Odisha)

‘Gotipua’ is a unique dance form since the performers are dressed as women. The dance form is taken seriously by the boys so much so that they don’t cut their hair just to look like women.

Bardo Chham (Arunachal Pradesh)

It is performed by Sherdukpens, a small community living in the West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh. The Sherdukpen tribe believes that every month an evil force appears to mar the good qualities of humans. Thus, to ward off those evil forces, they wear masks representing different animals and dance together.

Ponung (Arunachal Pradesh)

It is performed before the harvest of staple crops; it has women dancers. They often hold each other’s hands and dance in formations. These dancers are led by a man who sings various songs and uses a sword-like musical instrument known as ‘Yoksha.’ This is the only instrument used in the entire act. The participants wear traditional dresses, which comprise a long black-colored shirt and red-colored skirt-like garment

Bihu (Assam)

Bihu forms the most important part of the Bihu festival celebration. The dance is performed by young men and women, accompanied by the playing of pipes & drums. Lyrics used in the songs, which support the dance performance, play a vital role as they propagate love. Dancers are usually seen forming circles or rows before commencing the dance.

Bagurumba (Assam)

The Bodo tribe of Assam practices this dance form. Usually performed by women, the dance is accompanied by instruments like drums and flutes. Since Bagurumba is believed to have been inspired by nature, it can be further classified into different dance forms – each inspired by elements of nature like animals, plants, birds, insects, water, and air.

Nongkram (Meghalaya)

The Nongkram dance is performed during May and November by the inhabitants of the Khasi hills. Performed by boys and girls of the region, this particular dance form requires tremendous skills and energy. The dance is a form of paying respects to the deity worshipped by the tribe.

Hojagiri (Tripura)

The dance is performed during festivals, such as ‘Laxmi Puja’, ‘Durga Puja’, and the third day of ‘Dusshera’. While women dance gracefully by balancing bottles or earthen lamps on their heads, men take care of the musical part. Hojagiri is one of the most important dance forms of Tripura.

Dhol Cholom (Manipur)

One of the instruments that dominate Manipuri dances is the drum. Dhol Cholom, a drum dance is one of the dances performed during the Holi festival in Manipur. The dance is performed by men who display acrobatic moves while playing the dhol. The dance usually begins with a slow tempo and gradually gathers pace.

Cheraw (Mizoram)

The dance is a set of skillfully formulated moves that involve the movement of bamboo staves. While the men move horizontally and vertically held bamboo staves, women dance in between them, and the challenge is not to get caught between the staves. The movement of the staves makes a unique beat and it helps the dancers to move accordingly.

Chang lo (Nagaland)

The Chang Lo dance is traditionally performed to celebrate victory over an enemy. Since it is a war dance, dancers don costumes worn by warriors and display war tactics. The costumes are often dramatic, which adds color to the entire act. Women on the other hand drool over their heroes and the same is performed in the dance.

Maruni (Sikkim)

Maruni is the main attraction of Sikkim weddings. The performers are accompanied by a joker called ‘Dhatu Waray’ who makes fun of others. Nine different musical instruments, collectively called ‘Naumati Baja,’ are used in the performance. Though the dance traces its origin to Nepal, it forms an important part of the culture of Sikkim as well.

Yakshagana (Karnataka)

Yakshagana is a traditional folk theater form from Karnataka that combines dance, music, and storytelling. The performers, often in elaborate costumes and makeup, enact stories from the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and other epic narratives.

Dollu Kunitha (Karnataka)

Dollu Kunitha is a lively drum dance from Karnataka. It features dynamic and rhythmic drumming, along with energetic movements and leaps. This dance is often performed during cultural celebrations and rituals.

Karagattam (Tamil Nadu)

Karagattam is a traditional folk dance from Tamil Nadu that involves balancing a pot (karagam) on the head while performing various intricate steps and movements. It is often performed during festive occasions.

Kolannalu (Andhra Pradesh)

Popularly known as the ‘stick dance’, ‘Kolannalu’ involves a group of dancers forming two circles. While the inner circle receives a strike on their sticks, the dancers forming the outer circle deliver the strike.

Kolattam (Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh)

Kolattam is a group dance in which dancers form patterns and move rhythmically, often accompanied by sticks. It is a celebratory dance performed during harvest festivals and other special events.

Perini Shivatandavam (Telangana)

Perini Shivatandavam is a traditional dance from the Telangana region. It is characterized by vigorous and acrobatic movements, with male dancers depicting Lord Shiva’s Tandava dance.

Oyilattam (Tamil Nadu)

Oyilattam is a traditional folk dance in Tamil Nadu that features intricate patterns created by dancers who carry small sticks. The dance is often performed during temple festivals and celebrations.

Parai Attam (Tamil Nadu)

Men folk play a percussion instrument called ‘Parai’ and dance to the rhythm they come up with. Traditionally, the dance was performed for various reasons and is one of the oldest dance forms in India.

Karagattam (Tamil Nadu)

Karagattam is performed while worshipping the goddess of rain. Dancers balance huge pots on their heads and dance to the tunes of musicians.

Mayil Attam (Tamil Nadu and Kerala)

This dance is similar to the ‘Mayur Nritya’ of Uttar Pradesh. Young girls are dressed to look like peacocks and perform to the beats of the musicians. The dancers often imitate the moves of a peacock.

Kummi(Tamil Nadu and Kerala)

Since this dance form originated when there were no musical instruments, it just involves women singing and clapping.

Padayani (Kerala)

Padayani is not only popular but is also pleasing to the eyes as colors form an important aspect of the dance. The dancers wear massive masks which often represent deities.

Oppana (Kerala)

Oppana belongs to the Mappila community of Kerala and is performed by young girls at weddings. The bride sits in the middle and the dancing happens around her. Girls dance and clap rhythmically and are duly supported by a host of musicians. Pump organs, Tabla, Ganjira, and cymbals are used to create music.

Theyyam (Kerala)

Theyyam/Kaliayattam/Tira is performed in the temples and sacred groves of the northern region (Malabar). It is an ode to different regional deities and major gods. It is performed by men belonging to specific communities. Theyyams are believed to be a channel to the god.

Thiruvathira (Kerala)

It is a popular group dance performed during the harvest festival of Kerala, Onam. This dance is performed by women folk, moving in a circular movement, rhythmically at the Thiruvathira songs’ tune.

Thidambu Nritham (Kerala)

Thidambu dance is a ritual temple art form performed in the temples of North Malabar and Kasaragod District. Thidambu denotes the decorated replica of the deity in a temple that is usually taken outside for purposes like festivals and poojas. The dancing involves hopping on one leg which makes it that much more difficult.

Lavani (Maharashtra)

While Lavani primarily belongs to the state of Maharashtra in Western India, it is also popular in parts of Northern India, such as Vidarbha. Lavani is a dynamic and sensual dance form accompanied by traditional Maharashtrian music.

Koli (Maharashtra)

Since the dance is performed by fishermen, it involves elements of fishing and sea. Both men and women are involved in this interesting dance form which is a treat to watch.

Garba (Gujarat)

Garba is a lively folk dance form that originated in Gujarat but is popular in many parts of Northern India during the Navratri festival. It involves dancing in a circular formation to traditional music, and participants often wear colorful attire.

Dandiya Raas (Gujarat)

Dandiya Raas is a partner dance that is performed alongside Garba during the Navratri festival in Gujarat and other parts of Northern India. Dancers use colorful sticks (dandiyas) and engage in intricate patterns and footwork.

Ghodemodni (Goa)

Ghodemodni is also called a ‘warrior dance ’ as the performers are dressed as warriors and wield swords. The dance portrays a war since a king once captured the village in which the dance form originated.

Gaur Maria Dance (Madhya Pradesh)

The Gaur Maria dance is performed by the Maria tribal community of Madhya Pradesh. It is a vibrant and energetic dance that features men and women dancing in pairs. The dance portrays the everyday life and activities of the community, often with themes of hunting and farming.

Phulpati Dance (Chhattisgarh)

The Phulpati dance is a traditional folk dance of Chhattisgarh, mainly performed by women. It involves balancing a pot filled with flowers on the head and dancing gracefully. The dance is often performed during festivals and special occasions.

Karma Dance (Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh)

The Karma dance is a significant tribal dance in both Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. It is performed to worship the deity of fertility, “Karma Devta.” The dance is characterized by the rhythmic movements of the performers, who dance in circles to the beats of traditional instruments.

Rai Dance (Chhattisgarh)

The Rai dance is a traditional folk dance of the Kamar tribe in Chhattisgarh. It is typically performed during agricultural festivals and weddings. The dance involves graceful movements and storytelling through expressions.

Matki Dance (Madhya Pradesh)

Matki Dance is a popular folk dance in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. It is performed during the Holi festival. Dancers balance small earthen pots (matkis) on their heads and dance to the rhythm of traditional music.

Pandwani (Chhattisgarh)

While not a dance, Pandwani is a traditional folk art form from Chhattisgarh. It involves storytelling through song and music. The narratives often revolve around the epic stories of the Mahabharata, with the singer-poet narrating the tales.

Gendi (Chhattisgarh)

The Gendi dance is a playful folk dance performed by women in Chhattisgarh. It involves balancing a clay pot or “gendi” on the head while dancing. The dance is often associated with festivities and celebrations.

Saila Dance (Chhattisgarh)

The Saila dance is performed by the Gond tribal community of Chhattisgarh. It is a traditional dance that reflects their cultural identity. The dance is marked by the use of traditional instruments and colorful attire.

Panthi Dance (Chhattisgarh)

The Panthi dance is an important folk dance in Chhattisgarh. It is performed during religious and cultural events and depicts the religious fervor and devotion of the performers. The dance often includes singing and storytelling.

Classical Music

• Hindustani music, primarily practiced in Northern India, is distinguished by its raga system, intricate improvisation, and a deep emphasis on emotional expression. It often includes instrumental solos and vocal performances that evoke a wide range of moods and feelings.
• Carnatic music, dominant in Southern India, is revered for its structured compositions, rich in devotional themes and complex rhythmic patterns. Unlike Hindustani music, it leans more on pre-composed pieces and showcases technical mastery alongside spiritual depth.

Folk Music

• Indian folk music presents a rich and diverse soundscape, deeply rooted in regional traditions. Each community uses music as a mirror of everyday life, echoing their joys, struggles, rituals, and local legends. Folk songs often accompany agricultural cycles, festivals, and social events, serving as a powerful medium of storytelling and cultural continuity.

Devotional Music

• Examples: Bhajans, Kirtans, and Qawwalis are performed across the country, expressing spiritual longing and devotion.

Dhrupad

Details

• The word ‘Dhrupad’ is derived from ‘Dhruva’ meaning fixed and ‘pada’ meaning words or song. Therefore, the term dhrupad means “the literal rendering of verse into music” and so the songs have a particularly potent impact. Dhrupad is the oldest and perhaps the grandest form of Hindustani vocal music.
• Dhrupad was essentially devotional in essence.
• Dhrupad reached its pinnacle of glory during Akbar’s reign when stalwarts like Swami Haridas, Baba Gopal Das, Tansen and Baiju Bawra performed it.
• It was adapted for court performance during the reign of Raja Man Singh Tomar (1486-1517) of Gwalior.
• Dhrupad is essentially a poetic form that is incorporated into an extended presentation style that is marked by precise and overt elaboration of a raga.
• Dhrupad starts with Alap which is sung without words. The tempo rises gradually, and it is the major part of the performance. The alap evokes a mood in the audience that coincides with the mood of the raga that is chosen. Alap is a pure music without distraction of words. Then after some time, Dhrupad begins and Pakhawaj is played.
• Dhrupad includes use of sanskrit syllables and is of temple origin. Dhrupad compositions usually have 4 to 5 stanzas and are performed by a duo. Generally two male vocalists perform Dhrupad style of performances. Tanpura and Pakhawaj usually accompany them.
• There are four forms of Dhrupad singing on the basis of vanis or banis that they perform: Dagar Bani, Khandaar Bani, Nauhar Bani and Gauhar Bani.

Main Gharanas In Dhrupad

Dagari Gharana

• The Dagar family sings in Dagar Vani. This style puts great emphasis on alap.
• For several generations, men of their family have trained and performed in pairs. Dagars are generally Muslims but usually sing Hindu texts of Gods and Goddesses.
• A prominent duo of Dagari Gharana in this generation are Gundecha Brothers.

Darbhanga Gharana

• They sing the Khandar Vani and the Gauhar Vani. They emphasise on the raga alap as well as composed songs over an improvised alap.
• They improvise it by incorporating a variety of layakari.
• The leading exponents of this school are the Mallik family. Currently, the performing members include Ram Chatur Mallik, Prem Kumar Mallik and Siyaram Tewari

Bettiah Gharana

• They perform the Nauhar and Khandar vani styles with some unique techniques that only those trained within the families know.
• The famous family who expounds this gharana are the Mishras. The living member who performs regularly is Indra Kishore Mishra.
• Furthermore, the form of Dhrupad prevalent in the Bettiah and Darbhanga schools is known as the Haveli style.

Talwandi Gharana

• They sing the Khandar vani but as it is based in Pakistan, it has become difficult to keep that within the system of Indian music.

Khayal

Details

• Khyal/Khayal literally means ‘a stray thought ‘an imagination’. This is the most prominent genre of Hindustani vocal music depicting a romantic style of singing. The origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau.
• Hussain Shah (a Sharqi ruler of Jaunpur Sultanate) gave the biggest patronage to Khyal in the 15th century. Khayal originated as a popular form of music in the 18th century CE and was ultimate in the blending of Hindu and Persian cultures.
• The most important features of a Khayal are ‘Tans’ or the running glides over notes and ‘Bol-tans’ which distinguish it from Dhrupad.
• Khayal bases itself on a repertoire of short songs (two to eight lines); a khyal song is called a bandish.
  • Every singer generally renders the same bandish differently, with only the text and the raga remaining the same.
  • Usually, the theme for these Khyal bandish is romantic in nature. They sing about love, even if they are related to the divine creatures. It may be praising God or a particular king. Exceptional Khyal compositions are composed in the praise of Lord Krishna.
• A typical:
  • Bada Khyal- sung in slow tempo (vilambit laya) and it comprises most of the performance.
  • Chhota Khyal– sung in fast tempo (drut laya) and it is used as a finale.

Main gharanas in Khyal

Gwalior Gharana

• The Gwalior Gharana is the oldest Khayal Gharana. The rise of the Gwalior Gharana started with the reign of the great Mughal emperor Akbar (1542-1605).
• A distinguishing feature of the gharana is its simplicity, and one means to this is the selection of well-known ragas so that the listener is saved the effort of trying to identify the raga.
• It is rigorous in its approach as there is equal emphasis laid on melody and rhythm. The khayal singer includes “Raga Vistar”(melodic expansion) and “Alankar”(melodic ornamentation) to enhance the beauty and meaning of the raga.
• The most popular expounders of this Gharana are Nathu Khan, Vishnu Palushkar and Gururao Deshpande.

Kirana Gharana

• The name of this school of music derives from Kirana or Kairana, a town in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
• Nayak Gopal founded it but the real credit of making this popular lies with Abdul Karim Khan and Abdul Wahid Khan in the early 20th century. The Kirana Gharana is famous for their concern
  towards precise tuning and expression of notes.
• The Kirana gharana is better known for their mastery over the slow tempo ragas. They emphasise much more on the melody of the composition and the clarity on the pronunciation of the text in the song. They also prefer the use of traditional ragas.
• They have had a long line of great singers but the most famous are Pandit Bhimsen Joshi and Gangubai Hangal.
• The Carnatic exponents from the border regions of Maharashtra and Karnataka are well associated with Kirana Gharana.

Agra Gharana

• Historians argue that Khuda Baksh established this Gharana in the 19th century but the musicologists argue that Haji Sujan Khan founded it.
• Faiyaaz Khan revived the gharana by giving it a fresh and lyrical touch. Since then it has been renamed as Rangeela Gharana.
• The gayaki of the Agra Gharana is a blend of Khayal gayaki and Dhrupad-Dhamar style. The artists give special emphasis to Bandish in the composition.
• The major expounders of this Gharana are Mohsin Khan Niazi, C.R. Vyas and Vijay Kitchlu.

Patiala Gharana

• The founders of this gharana were the brothers Ali Baksh and Fateh Ali, popularly known as ‘Aliya-Fattu’. It received initial sponsorship by the Maharaja of Patiala in Punjab.
• They soon gathered a reputation for ghazal, thumri and khyal. They focus on the greater use of rhythm. As their compositions stress on emotions they tend to use ornamentation or alankars in their music.
• The Patiala style achieved its all-round distinction and excellence in the hands of its greatest genius, Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan.
• It emphasis on the correct enunciation of swaras, thus giving the style a sensuously aesthetic touch.
• The use of the catchy and intricate tappa singing style is evident in fast figures, as are the use of swift and voluted sargam patterns.
• The Patiala taans are extremely enthralling, given the briskness and vigour with which they are executed. In fact, it has been called a taan-bazi style, because it uses a variety of fast figures and ornamentation for the sake of appeal.
• Equal emphasis is given to swara and laya.

Jaipur-Atrauli Gharana

• Ustad Alladiya Khan is the founder of this Gharana.
• The gharana is known for its unique laykari and rich repertoire of ragas, especially Jod-Raags and Sankeerna Raags.
• This gharana tends to use traditional ‘bandishes’ (compositions) and does not lay as much emphasis on the lyrical content of the bandish as much as it lays on the raga notes within the composition.
• There is an integrated movement and progression of swara and laya. Complex note patterns are rendered with precision and spontaneity within the framework of a steady medium tempo.

Bhendibazaar Gharana

• Bhendi Bazaar gharana is named after the famous Bhendi Bazaar in Bombay which is next to Nall Bazaar and Imam Bada.
• Chhajju Khan, Nazir Khan and Khadim Hussain Khan founded it in the 19th century. It gained popularity and fame as the singers were trained to control their breath for a long period. Using this technique, these artists could sing long passages in a single breath. Furthermore, their uniqueness lies in using some of the Carnatic ragas in their envious repertoire.

Tarana Style

Details

• Tarana is a style consisting of peculiar syllables woven into rhythmical patterns as a song. It is usually sung in faster tempo.
• Tarana is known to have evolved from the patient and earnest efforts of Amir Khusro.
• Tarana relies solely on rhythm, tabla bols and tries to maintain a balanced pattern. It can thus be understood that the tempo or laya is bound to be fast, and not slow like khayal bandishes.
• While khayal uses ameaningful verbal text or bandish to elaborate a raaga, tarana wholly relies on rhythmically set ‘meaningless’ bols to develop a raaga.
• The tradition of using meaningless bols to create music is not new to Indian musical traditions, given that a form similar to tarana, called Thillana in the Carnatic tradition.
• Currently, the World’s fastest tarana singer is Pandit Rattan Mohan Sharma of the Mewati Gharana. The audience at Pandit Motiram Sangeet Samaroh in Hyderabad gave him the title of “Tarana ke Baadshah” (King of Tarana).

Gharana System

• In Hindustani music, a gharana is a system of social organization linking musicians or dancers by lineage or apprenticeship, and by adherence to a particular musical style.
• The word gharana comes from the Hindi word ‘ghar’ which is derived from Sanskrit for Griha, which means ‘house’. It typically refers to the place where the musical ideology originated.
• A gharana also indicates a comprehensive musicological ideology. This ideology sometimes changes substantially from one gharana to another.
• The concept of a Guru-Shishya leads to the development of Gharanas. It directly affects the thinking, teaching, performance and appreciation of music.
• The main area of difference between Gharanas is the manner in which the notes are sung.
• Some of the Gharanas well known for singing Hindustani classical music are: Agra, Gwalior, Indore, Jaipur, Kirana, and Patiala.

Thumri

• Thumri originated in the Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, mainly in Lucknow and Benares, around the 18th century CE. Thumri was developed by the famous musician Sadiq Ali Shah.
• It is believed to have been influenced by hori, kajri and dadra, popular in Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• Thumri is supposed to be a romantic and erotic style of singing and is very lyrical in its structure and presentation, thus also called “the lyric of Indian classical music”.
• This was inspired by the Bhakti movement so much that the text usually revolves around a girl’s love for Krishna. The language of the composition is usually Hindi in Braj Bhasha dialect.
• The song compositions are mostly of love, separation and devotion. Its most distinct feature is the erotic subject matter, picturesquely portraying the various episodes from the lives of Lord Krishna and Radha.
• Depending on the mood a thumri is usually set to ragas like Khamaj, Kaphi, Bhairavi and so on and the musical grammar is not strictly adhered to.
• The compositions are usually sung in a female voice. This is different than the other forms as thumri is characterised by its inherent sensuality. It also allows the singer to improvise during the performance and so they have greater flexibility with the use of raga. Thumri is also used as a generic name for some other, even lighter, forms such as Dadra, Hori, Kajari, Saavan, Jhoola, and Chaiti.
• Thumri is linked to classical dance Kathak.
• There are two main types of Thumri:
  1. Purbi Thumri: It is sung in the slower tempo.
  2. Punjabi Thumri: It is sung in the fast and lively tempo.
• There are three main gharanas of thumri – Benaras, Lucknow and Patiala.
• Rasoolan Devi, Siddheshwari Devi are prominent musicians of this style. Another very famous proponent of Thumri was Girija Devi of Purab Ang of Benaras Gharana.

Tappa Style

• The tappa is said to have developed in the late 18th Century CE from the folk songs of camel riders of North-West India. The credit for its development goes to Shorey Mian or Ghulam Nabi of Multan.
• Tappa literally means ‘jump’ in Persian.
• They are essentially folklore of love and passion and are written in Punjabi.
• The Tappa consists of the song uttered in fast note patterns. Its beauty lies in the quick and intricate display of various permutations and combinations of notes.
• One of its most striking features is the singer’s use of an unrelenting cascade of jumpy and zig-zag taans called zamzama.
• It is highly unpredictable style and the singer has to persistently hop from one note to the next improvising as he or she goes along using varieties of tans.
• Tappas are composed mainly in Thumri raagas, such as Bhairavi, Khamaja, Desa, Kafi, Jhinjhoti, Pilu, Barwa.
• The compositions are very short and are based on Shringara Rasa.
• Varanasi and Gwalior are the strongholds of Tappa.
• Famous exponents of this style are Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao of Gwalior and Shanno Khurana.

Dhamar-Hori Style

• These compositions are similar to Dhrupad but are chiefly associated with the festival of Holi.
• Here the compositions are specifically in praise of Lord Krishna. This music, sung in the dhamar tala, is chiefly used in festivals like Janmashthami, Ramnavami and Holi.
• Hori is a type of dhrupad sung on the festival of Holi. The compositions here describe the spring season. These compositions are mainly based on the love pranks of Radha-Krishna.

Ghazal

• The ghazal is mainly a poetic form than a musical form, but it is more song-like than the thumri. The ghazal is described as the “pride of Urdu poetry”.
• The ghazal originated in Iran in the 10th Century CE. It grew out of the Persian qasida, a poem written in praise of a king, a benefactor or a nobleman.
• The ghazal is a collection of couplets (called sher). It never exceeds 12 shers and on an average, ghazals usually have about 7 shers.
• Even though ghazal began with Amir Khusro in northern India, Deccan in the south was its home in the early stages. It developed and evolved in the courts of Golconda and Bijapur under the patronage of Muslim rulers.
• Every ghazal has a single theme – Love and more specifically unattainable love. The subcontinental ghazals have an influence of Islamic Mysticism and the subject of love can usually be interpreted as a spiritual love.
• The 18th and 19th centuries are regarded as the golden period of the ghazal with Delhi and Lucknow being its main centres.
• As years passed, the ghazal has undergone some simplification in terms of words and phrasings, which helps it to reach a larger audience around the world. Most of the ghazals are now sung in styles that are not limited to khyal, thumri and other classical and light classical genres.
• Some of the famous persons associated with Ghazal are Muhammad Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib, Rumi (13th century), Hafez (14th century), Kazi Nazrul Islam, etc.

Bhajan

• Bhajan comes from the word ‘bhaj’ which means to worship. The basis of music has always been devotion and spirituality. The Gandharva music, or the marga music was composed to sing the praises of God.
• Gandharva marg led to the Dhrupad tradition that went on to become the very foundation of classical music in India. And as music evolved further, the devotional expressions also changed from staunch classical renditions to light classical music that dwelled more in the unbound love and devoutness of the devotee.    
• Bhajan, as a musical form, came into prominence during the Bhakti movement. There is no stringent rule book for light classical music as it is there for classical music. And the same applies to Bhajans. 
• Bhajans emphasize majorly on its lyrics and a melodious raga that complements that. The words used to compose the lyrics rake devotional feeling (bhakti ras) in the minds of the listeners. 
• Sung in religious gatherings, Bhajans are accompanied with instruments like Harmonium, Tambourine, Tabla, and Dholak. 
• The closest analog of Bhajan is Kirtan, a more high-paced and energetic form of music that involves multiple performers singing and dancing at the same time. In contrast, Bhajan involves solo renditions and is characterized by medium to slow-paced melodious compositions.  
• Some of the most celebrated Bhajan singers include Anup Jolata, Anuradha Podwal, and Manna De among many others.

Chaturang

• Chaturang denotes four colours or a composition of a song in four parts: Fast Khayal, Tarana, Sargam and a “Paran” of Tabla or Pakhwaj.

Dadra

• Dadra bears a close resemblance to the Thumri. The texts are as amorous as those of Thumris.
• The major difference is that dadras have more than one antara and are in dadra tala.
• Singers usually sing a dadra after a thumri.

Ragasagar

• Ragasagar consists of different parts of musical passages in different ragas as one song composition.
• These compositions have 8 to 12 different ragas and the lyrics indicate the change of the ragas.
• The peculiarity of this style depends on how smoothly the musical passages change along with the change of ragas.

Pallavi

The first two lines of the song are called Pallavi. They occur over and over, especially after each stanza. This is considered to be the “Piece de Resistance’ or the best part of the Carnatic composition called ‘Rangam Thanam Pallavi’ where the artist has great scope for improvisation.

Anu Pallavi

Usually the Pallavi is followed by two more lines or sometimes just one more. This portion is called Anu Pallavi. This is sung at the beginning for sure, but sometimes even during the end of the song, but not necessarily after each stanza. The stanzas of a song are called
‘Charanam’.

Varnam

It is a composition usually sung or played at the beginning of a recital and reveals the general form of the Raga.

The Varnam is made up of two parts –

• Purvanga or first half
• Uttaranga or second half

Kriti

It is a highly evolved musical song set to a certain raga and fixed tala or rhythmic cycle.

Ragam

It is a melodic improvisation in free rhythm played without mridangam accompaniment.

Tanam

It is another style of melodic improvisation in free rhythm.

Trikalam

It is the section where the Pallavi is played in three tempi keeping the Tala constant.

Swara-Kalpana

It is the improvised section performed with the drummer in medium and fast speeds.

Ragamalika

This is the final part of the Pallavi where the soloist improvises freely and comes
back to the original theme at the end.

Dimensions

Hindustani Classical Music

Carnatic Classical Music

Influence

Arab, Persian, Afghan

Indigenous

Freedom

Scope for artists to improvise. Hence scope for variations.

No freedom to improvise

Sub-styles

There are several sub-styles which led to emergence of ‘Gharanas’

Only one particular prescribed style of singing

Need for instruments

Equally important as vocals

More emphasis on vocal music

Ragas

6 major ragas

72 ragas

Time

Adheres to time

Doesn’t adhere to any time

Instruments

Table, Sarangi, Sitar and Santoor

Veena, Mrindangum and Mandolin

Association to Parts of India

North India

South India

Commonality

Flute and Violin

1. String Puppet

• Kundhei
• Kathputli
• Bommalattam
• Gombeyatta

2. Shadow Puppet

• Togalu Gombeyatta
• Ravanachhaya
• Tholu Bommalatta

3. Rod Puppet

• Yampuri
• Putul Nachh

4. Glove Puppet

• Pavakoothu

Kundhei

• Kundhei is the name of the string puppets of Odisha.
• They are made of light wood, and their skirts are long.
• The puppeteer can move around with more ease because the puppets have more joints.
• The strings are held together by a triangular prop.
• The Odissi dance is prominently featured in Kundhei puppet shows.

Kathputli

• Kathputli, a traditional string puppet from Rajasthan, derives its name from the Hindi terms for wood and doll, respectively, “Kath” and “putli.
• The puppets wear colourful traditional Rajasthani clothing.
• The presentation is accompanied by a dramatic folk music score, and the puppeteer’s finger is attached to the strings.
• The absence of legs on the puppets is a defining characteristic.

Bommalattam

• Puppetry called “bommalattam” has its roots in Tamil Nadu.
• It combines elements of rod puppetry and string puppetry.
• The puppeteer wears an iron ring on his head that is attached to the strings.
• With some standing up to 4.5 feet tall and weighing up to 10 kilogrammes, the Bommalattam puppets are the biggest and heaviest marionettes in India.
• The four distinctive stages of the Bommalattam theatre are Vinayak Puja, Komali, Amanattam, and Pusenkanattam.

Gombeyatta

• It is a traditional puppet show from Karnataka.
• They are modelled after the many characters from the Yakshagana Theatres.
• One noteworthy feature of this puppet is the use of more than one puppeteer to control the puppets.

Togalu Gombeyatta

• It is the renowned shadow theatre of Karnataka.
• A distinctive feature of Togalu Gombayetta puppets is the variation in puppet size based on social rank, with enormous puppets portraying monarchs and religious leaders and smaller puppets representing the underprivileged and slaves.

Ravanchhaya

• This style of shadow puppetry is the most dramatic, and it’s very well-liked in Odisha.
• The puppets made of deer skin are posed in dramatic and bold.
• Since they don’t have any joints, learning this art is very challenging.
• It is common to employ puppets that are not human, such trees and animals.
• Because they have acquired in-depth instruction in their field, the Ravanchhaya artists are able to produce poetic and delicate theatrical narratives.

Tholu Bommalata

• It is the shadow theatre of Andhra Pradesh.
• With a classical musical background, the presentation focuses on legendary and holy stories from the Epics and Puranas.
• The puppets have different colours on both sides and are larger.

Yampuri

• It is a typical rod puppet from Bihar.
• The puppets often have no joints and are made of wood.

Putul Nach

• It is the customary rod puppet dance of the Bengal-Odisha-Assam region.
• Typically three to four feet tall, the figures are dressed as Jatra characters.
• During the performance, a musical group of three to four musicians uses a harmonium, cymbals, and tabla.

Pavakoothu

• The traditional glove puppet show called Pavakoothu is presented in Kerala.
• It developed in the 18th century as a result of the influence of Kerala’s renowned classical dance-drama known as Kathakali on puppet shows.
• A puppet in Pavakoothu can be between one and two feet tall. Wooden arms and a wooden head are joined by thick fabric that has been cut and sewed into a small bag-like structure.
• The puppets’ faces are adorned with paint, tiny pieces of thin gilded zinc, peacock feathers, and other decorations.
• The musical instruments used during the concert were chenda, chengila, ilathalam, and shankh .

Traditional Theatre

Examples: Ramlila (dramatizing the Ramayana), Yakshagana (Karnataka), and Kathakali theatre are popular, steeped in mythology and ritualistic elements.

Modern & Contemporary Theatre

Overview: Influenced by Western theatre, Indian playwrights and directors have experimented with themes, styles, and narratives, reflecting socio-political realities and individual experiences.

Kariyila

• One of the most intriguing and well-known folk drama genres of the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh is kariyila, also known as kariyala.
• In the Himachal Pradesh districts of Shimla, Solan, and Sirmour, this open-air folk theatre style is especially well-liked.

Bhand Pather

• It is a traditional folk theatre from Kashmir which is a prominent variety of Indian Theatre.
• It has been mentioned in Natya Shastra.
• It is a form of folk theatre from Jammu and Kashmir that incorporates both historical narratives and contemporary social satire.
• It has a secular attitude while being performed by Muslims.
• It includes dancing, singing, and acting.

Ankyaa Naat

• It is a classic Assamese one-act play that dates back to the 15th and 16th centuries AD and was created by the illustrious Vaishnava Saint Sankaradeva and his student Madhavdev.
• The epic presentation of it depicts scenes from Lord Krishna’s life.
• The plays are written in Brajavali, a language that combines Assamese and Maithili.

Ramlila

• A renowned folk theatre in the region of Uttar Pradesh is called Ramlila.
• The Ramayana is performed along with songs, dances, and dialogues that occur in the days before Dussehra.
• The majority of the time, male actors who also play Sita execute it.
• In 2008, UNESCO designated the Ramlila celebrations as part of the “Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.”

Ramman

• It is a ritualistic theatre dedicated to the local deity Bhumiyal Devta in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand.
• It is listed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity maintained by UNESCO.
• The members of the Bhandari caste dress in a Narasimha-themed religious mask (half-man and half-lion).

Bhavai

• A well-known type of Rajasthani folk theatre is bhavai.
• This form heavily relies on dance to convey the plot of several short plays.
• The players balance a number of clay pots or metal pitchers while addressing the fundamentally amorous theme of the play.
• Semi-classical music performed in a distinctive folk style on instruments like the dholak and jhanjhar complements the presentation.
• The sutradhar is referred to as Nayaka in the Bhavai theatre.

Daskathia

• A well-known kind of Odisha folk theatre is daskathia.
• Gayaka, the lead vocalist, and Palia, the co-narrator, are the two narrators in this form.
• Dramatic music played on the Kathia, a wooden musical instrument, is used to enhance the narrative.
• The story’s main character is Lord Shiva.
• A close variation of this genre is the Chhaiti Ghoda, which features three narrators, two musical instruments (the dhol and mohuri), and two musical instruments.

Ojapalli

• The Manasha or Serpent Goddess festival is connected with the distinctive Assamese story theatre form known as Ojapali.
• There are three distinct sections to the story: Baniya Khanda, Bhatiyali Khanda, and Deva Khanda.
• Oja serves as the primary narrator, while Palis makes up the choir.

Powwada

• It is performed throughout the regions of Maharashtra.
• When Shivaji defeated Afzal Khan, a play honoring Shivaji’s bravery was written.
• This play is today known as Powada.
• These folk musicians, the Gondhalis and Shahirs, sing operatic ballads that depict acts of valor.

Naqal

• It is a performance based on imitation and is based in Punjab (Naqal) and Uttar Pradesh (Bhand).
• The performer is also known as ‘Behroopiya’ or ‘Naqalchi’ (impersonator).
• To convey a social or political point, he employs humor, oddities, wit, and humor.
• Artists from the Muslim Bhand Community perform it.

Yaksha Gana

• It is one of the earliest theatrical customs that are still current in Karnataka and some areas of Kerala.
• It was performed in the royal courts of the Vijayanagara period by a unique group known as Jakkula Varu.
• Initially, it was mostly a solo performer’s descriptive dance-drama.
• Later iterations included more variables and transformed into a typical dance drama. It was significantly influenced by the Vaishnava Bhakti Movement.

Burra Katha

• A well-known Andhra Pradesh storytelling custom is Burra Katha.
• Its name comes from the Burra, a percussion instrument that is regularly used in performance.
• The performance is led by a major artist or storyteller, and the rhythm and chorus are provided by two co-artists.

Tal-Maddale

• Tal is a kind of cymbal, and Maddale is a kind of drum. It is typically thought of as Yakshagana’s precursor.
• A Bhagavata tells the tale with the aid of several Arthadharis.
• The drama is presented seated, without acting, dancing, or costumes.
• Kerala and coastal Karnataka are where it is most commonly practiced.

Kuruvanji

• The 300-year-old Kuruvanji is renowned for its classical Tamil poetry and tunes.
• The first Kuruvanji was composed by Thirukutarajappa Kaviyar.
• The focus of the story is a woman who is in love. Kuruvanji, who is also known as the “fortune teller,” foretells the heroine’s future.
• The primary dance style in Tamil Nadu is called Bharatnatyam, and it is performed in a dancing ballet style.

Jatra

• The popular folk theatre Jatra is performed in eastern India.
• The tradition was established by Vaishnava Saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and is typically performed outside.
• Throughout his travels through rural Bengal, he disseminated Lord Krishna’s teachings using the Jatra medium.
• Later, versions that recount tales based on Puranic customs emerged, like Rama Jatra, Shiv Jatra, and Chandi Jatra.
• In recent times, Jatra was used to narrate tales with secular, historical, and even patriotic themes.
• A well-known kind of street theatre in Odisha is called Sahi Jatra.

Ancient origins

The Dhanurveda section of the Yajurveda contains references to martial arts.

• Indian epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana describe detailed accounts of armed and unarmed combat, involving various weapons and fighting techniques.
• The earliest organised unarmed fighting art was malla-yuddha (combat-wrestling), codified into four forms during the Vedic Period.

Classical Period (3rd to 10th centuries CE)

Elements from Yoga Sutras and dance forms were incorporated into martial arts during the 3rd century CE.

• The Sushruta Samhita(4th century CE) identified 108 vital points on the human body, 64 being lethal if struck properly.
• Around 630 CE, the Pallava dynasty commissioned sculptures depicting unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents.
• Martial arts were taught at educational institutions, not limited to the warrior class.
• The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty (7th–10th centuries CE) commissioned texts on martial arts and practised these systems.

Medieval Period (11th to 15th centuries CE)

Kalaripayattu developed its present form by the 11th century during warfare between the Chera and Chola dynasties.

• The Malla Purana (c.13th century) is the earliest treatise discussing malla-yuddha techniques.
• The Vijayanagara Empire (14th–16th centuries CE) gave importance to physical culture, with wrestling being popular among royalty and commoners.
• Accounts describe specialised weapons training, fencing, and wrestling among the nobility of Vijayanagara.

Mughal Era (1526–1857 CE)

The Mughals patronised India’s native martial arts, recruiting Rajput fighters and practising these systems.

• The Ain-i-Akbari mentions various fighting styles like wrestling, boxing, sword-fighting, and archery being demonstrated at the Mughal court.
• The pehlwani wrestling style was developed by combining malla-yuddha with Persian varzesh-e bastani influences.
• The Naga warrior-ascetics practised armed martial arts to protect Hindus from Mughal rulers.

Maratha dynasty (1674–1859 CE)

The Marathas were known for their expertise in swords, spears, and guerilla tactics (Shiva sutra).

• Shivaji, the Maratha warrior-king, was a master swordsman and proficient in various weapons, including the native Mardani khela.
• The Maratha Light Infantry, tracing its origins to 1768, is one of the oldest regiments of the Indian Army.

Modern period (1857–present)

Indian martial arts underwent a decline during the British colonial rule due to the introduction of firearms and European modes of warfare.

• Certain styles like Kalaripayattu and Silambam were banned but later revived as part of the anti-colonial movement in the early 20th century.
• Martial communities like Sikhs were employed in the British armed forces, allowing them to practice their traditional boxing styles like loh-musti.

Types

Description

Kalaripayattu

• Kalaripayattu, one of India’s oldest martial arts, originated in Kerala around the 3rd century BC. 
• It is practised in most parts of Southern India and includes mock duels, physical exercises, and a style of fighting that is primarily focused on footwork, kicks, strikes, and weapon-based practice. 
• It forms the basis of all martial art forms, including Karate and kung fu.
• The art is still rooted in traditional rituals and ceremonies and includes techniques such as Uzhichil, fighting with Otta, Maipayattu, Puliyankam, Verumkai, and Angathari. 
• Even women practice this art, and it is still rooted in traditional rituals and ceremonies.

Silambam

• Silambam, a modern and scientific martial art in Tamil Nadu, was promoted by Pandyas, Cholas, and Cheras during their reign. 
• The silambam bamboo was a popular trading item with traders and visitors from Rome, Greece, and Egypt, and was mentioned in the 2nd AD Tamil literature, Silappadikaram.
• The long staff is used for mock fighting and self-defence. 
• Techniques include swift foot movements, hand-waving, thrust, cut, chop, and sweep to achieve mastery and development of force, momentum, and precision. 
• Players must be trained to diffuse uncontrollable mobs using strokes like snake, monkey, and hawk hits, as well as deflect stones thrown by them.

Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak

• Thang-ta,an armed martial art created by the Meitei people of Manipur, is considered one of the most lethal combat forms. 
• Sarit Sarak, an unarmed art form, uses hand-to-hand combat. 
• Their history dates back to the 17th century when they were used by Manipuri kings against the British. 
• Despite being banned by the British after their capture, they came back to the limelight post-independence. 
• The two primary components of Thang-ta are a sword and a spear. (Thang-“sword,” and Ta – “spear.”)
• The combined name of the two parts, Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak, is Huyen Langlon.

Gatka

• Gatka is a weapon-based martial art form performed by Sikhs in Punjab, showcasing skillful use of weapons like sticks, Kirpan, Talwar, and Kataar. 
• The art form’s attack and defence are determined by hand and foot positions and weapon nature. 
• Gatka is displayed at various celebrations, including fairs, and signifies freedom and grace.

Cheibi Gad-ga 

• It is an ancient martial art from Manipur, involving fighting using a sword and shield.
• It has been modified to a soft leather stick instead. The contest takes place in a 7-meter circle with two lines 2 meters apart. 
• The Cheibi stick is 2 to 2.5 feet long, and the shield is 1 meter in diameter. Victory is determined by points earned during a duel based on skills and brute force.

Pari-khanda

• It is a martial art from Bihar, created by Rajputs, involving sword and shield fighting. It is still practiced in Bihar and is widely used in Chhau dance. 
• The name combines the words ‘Pari’ meaning shield and ‘khanda’ meaning sword, indicating the use of both weapons in the art.

Thoda

• Originating from Himachal Pradesh, is a blend of martial arts, sports, and culture. 
• It takes place during the Baisakhi festival in April and involves community prayers to invoke the blessings of Goddesses Mashoo and Durga. 
• The martial art relies on archery skills and dates back to the epic battles in Mahabharata. 
• The game involves two groups of around 500 people each, mostly dancers, and is played in a marked court to ensure discipline. 
• The teams are called Pashis and Saathis, believed to be descendants of Pandavas and Kauravas of Mahabharata. 
• The archers aim for the leg below the knee, as there are negative points for striking other parts of the body.

Kuttu Varisai (Empty-Hand Silambam)

• Kuttu Varisai, first mentioned in Sangam literature, translates to ’empty hand combat’ and is primarily practised in Tamil Nadu.
• This is an unarmed Dravidian martial art that enhances athleticism and footwork through starching, yoga, gymnastics, and breathing exercises. 
• Major techniques include grappling, striking, and locking, and it uses animal-based sets like snake, eagle, tiger, elephant, and monkey.

Musti Yuddha

• It is an unarmed martial art form originating in Varanasi and is a popular art form that incorporates physical, mental, and spiritual aspects. 
• It uses techniques like kicks, punches, knee, and elbow strikes. 

Malla Khamb

• It is a gymnastic and martial arts form, combining acrobatics, strength training, and combat techniques. 
• It is practiced in Madhya Pradesh.
• Practitioners perform intricate postures using a stationary vertical pole.
  • The pole, often made of Sheesham (Indian rosewood), serves as a central training implement.

Malla Yuddha

• This traditional combat wrestling is the oldest known codified form of fighting in the Indian Subcontinent. 
• It is related to other Southeast Asian wrestling styles including Naban.
• Famous practitioners included Gautama Buddha, Krishna Deva Raya, etc.
• The art is divided into four categories, named after Hindu Gods who excelled in it. 
  • Jambuvanti: involves forcing opponents into submission through locking and holding. 
  • Hanumanti: focuses on technical superiority. 
  • Bhimaseni: focuses on shear strength. 
  • Jarasandhi: focuses on limb and joint breaking.
• Vajra-Mushti: It shares its training methodology with malla-yuddha and uses a knuckle duster-like weapon for striking and defence.

Inbuan Wrestling

• It is a Mizoram martial art dating back to 1750 AD and is characterised by strict rules prohibiting stepping out of the circle, kicking, and knee bending. 
• The goal is to lift the opponent off their feet while adhering to these rules, and the wrestlers must catch their waist belt.

Lathi

• It is an ancient armed martial art form in India and is a weapon used by Indian police to control crowds.
• It refers to a stick, typically cane sticks, 6-8 feet long, sometimes metal-tipped. 
• Despite being one of the world’s oldest martial arts, Lathi remains a popular sport in villages in Punjab and Bengal.

Mardani Khel 

• It is a traditional Maharashtrian martial art practised in Kolhapur, focusing on weaponry skills, swift movements, and low stances. 
• It is known for its use of the unique Indian Patta (sword) and Vita (corded lance), with famous practitioners including Shivaji.

Sqay 

• It is a traditional martial art from Kashmir that utilises wooden weapons and involves fluid, graceful movements.

Martial Art, Origin

Description

Paika Akhada, Odisha

• A combination of dance and combat. Earlier used by warriors, now practised as a performing art.

Kathi Samu, Andhra Pradesh

• Ancient skill mastered by royal armies of the State.

Bandesh, Rajasthan

• Ancient unarmed art uses various lock holds against an armed opponent without killing them.

Insu Knawr, Mizoram

• Players use round wooden rods to play this game within a circle.

Kirip, Saldu, Nicobar

• Popular in the Nicobarese Tribe, Also known as Nicobarese wrestling

Varma Ati, Tamil Nadu

• Attacks are aimed at the body’s vital spots

Ancient Literature

• Vedas and Upanishads:

1. 1. 1. Overview: Sacred texts form the bedrock of Indian philosophy, spirituality, and culture, covering themes like cosmology, ethics, and meditation.

• Epics:

1. 1. 1. Ramayana: Authored by Valmiki, it’s a grand narrative exploring themes of duty, righteousness, and devotion.
      2. Mahabharata: An epic tale of war, duty, and morality, including the Bhagavad Gita, a significant spiritual and philosophical discourse.

• Sanskrit Classics:

1. 1. Works like Kalidasa’s “Shakuntala” and Bhasa’s plays are renowned for their poetic beauty and dramatic expression.

Medieval Literature

• Bhakti and Sufi Poetry:

1. 1. 1. Overview: Devotional poetry blossomed in regional languages, emphasizing love and devotion to God, and promoting egalitarian spiritual values.

• Court Poetry and Chronicles:

1. 1. Examples: Prithviraj Raso, written in Apabhramsha, celebrates the heroics of Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan.

Modern Literature

• Colonial Era:

1. 1. 1. Writers like Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and Mirza Ghalib made significant contributions to Indian literature, reflecting the socio-political conditions of the time.

• Post-Independence:

1. 1. With the advent of the Progressive Writers’ Movement, literary works started addressing themes of social reform, nationalism, and human rights.

Contemporary Literature

• Indian literature today is a dynamic amalgamation of traditional and modern themes, exploring issues like identity, diaspora, gender, and globalization.
• Notable authors include R.K. Narayan, Salman Rushdie, Arundhati Roy, and Jhumpa Lahiri.

Regional Literature

• Each linguistic region in India boasts a vibrant literary tradition, with classics in Tamil, Bengali, Marathi, Punjabi, Malayalam, and other languages.
• These literatures cover a wide array of genres, from poetry and drama to novels and short stories, reflecting the local cultures, histories, and sensibilities.

Authors

Books

Amarasimha

Amarakosha

Aryabhatta

Aryabhatiya (Book on astronomy and mathematics)

Asvaghosha

Buddhacharita (Buddhist literature in Sanskrit) Vajrasuchi Suandarananda

Banabhatta

Harshacharita Kadambari

Bharata Muni

Natyasastra

Bhaskaracharya

Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita & Gola (on Astronomy)]

Bhattin

Ravan Vadha

Bhavabhuti

Uttarama-Charita (Continuation to Valmiki Ramayana) Malati Madhava

Bhoja

Saraswati Kanthabharana

Bilhana

Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya)

Bilhana

Karnasundari

Billala

Bhojaprabandha

Brahmagupta

Brahmasiddhanta Khandakhadya

Chandrabardai

Prithvirajcharita

Charaka

Charaka Samhita (Book on medicine)

Dandi

Dasakumaracharita

Devabhadra

Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative)

Devachandra

Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)

Dhananjaya

Dasharupa

Hemchandra

Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta Sadhana

Hiuen Tsang

Si-yu-Ki

Jayadeva

Prasannaraghava

Jayanka

Prithviraja Vijay

Jayasimha

Kumarapalacharita

Kalidas

Malavikagnimitram (Love story of Agnimitra Sunga(son of Pushyamitra Sunga) and Malavika); Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; Vikramorvasiyam (Love story of Vikram and Urvasi); Abhijnanashakuntalam (The recognition of Shakuntala).

Kamandaka

Nitisara (On Polity)

King Bhoja

Rajmariganka (On Astronomy)

Lagdhacharya

Book on astrology

Madhava

Madhava Nidana(Book on pathology)

Mathara

Nitishastra (On Polity)

Nyayachandra

Hammirakavya

Padmagupta

Navashasankacharita

Panini

Ashtadyayi

Patanjali

Mahabhasya

Rajashekhara

Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa; Bhuvana Kosha; Haravilasa

Sudraka

Mrichakatik (Drama)

Sushruta

Sushruta Samhita (Book on surgery)

Tisata- Vagbhatta’s Son

Chikitsakalika or Yogamala

Vagabhatta

Astanga-Sangraha; AstangaHirdaya-Samhita

Vakpati

Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj)

Valmiki

Ramayana

Varahamihira

Panchsiddhantika(Book on Astrology); Suryasiddhanta; Brihatsamhita (book on wide range of topic like planetary movements, geology, architecture etc.)

Vardhamana

Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)

Ved Vyas

Mahabharata

Vijnanaeshvara

Mitakasara

Visaladeva

Harikeli Nataka

Vishakhadatta

Mudrarakshasa (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas); Devichandraguptam (Story of Gupta King Ramagupta)

Persian Literature

Divan (a collection of Persian poetry), Nuh Sipihr, and Duval Rani-Khizr Khan (tragic love poem)

• These were written by Amir Khusrau Dehlavi.

Tarikh-e-Firuz Shahi

• It was written by Zia-ud din Barani.

Tuzuk-I-Babari (Babarnama)

• Written by Babar.

Humayun-nama

• Gulbadan Begum (half sister of Humayun).

Ain-e Akbari and Akbarnama 

• Written by court historian Abul Fazl.

Padmavat

• Written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi.

Shah Jahan-nama 

• Written by Inayat Khan.

Kulliyat (collection of verses)

• Written by Mir Jafar Zatalli.

Padshahnama

• written by Abdul Hamid Lahori.

Razmanama (Book of War)

• It was the first-ever Persian translation of the Mahabharata under the order of Emperor Akbar.

Prithviraj Raso

• It was the first Hindi book and it documents the life and challenges faced by Prithviraj Chauhan.

Ramcharitmanas, Dohavali, Gitavali, and Vinaya Patrika

• These were written by Tulsidas.

Sur Sagar

• Surdas wrote it, and the book is about Krishna’s infancy and adolescent affairs with the Gopis.