Babur

Details

• Babur’s ancestor, Timur, had largely benefited of his Indian adventure. Timur had annexed some areas of Punjab, which remained with his successors for several generations. When Babur conquered Afghanistan, he felt he had right over these areas. This conquest made him think of the conquest of India.

Reasons for Conquest of India

• Like myriad earlier invaders of India from Central Asia, Babur too was drawn towards India by the lure of its wealth. Babur was looking towards India as a place which could add to his meager revenue from Kabul. Moreover, he was apprehensive of the attack of Uzbeks on Kabul, because of which he considered India as a suitable base for refuge and also to carry out operations against Uzbeks. Also, the splintered political conditions of India suited Babur. He also received embassies from Afghan chief Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga, requesting him to invade India.
• By defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (20 April 1526), Babur established his control up to Delhi and Agra. But presence of Babur in the Indo-Gangetic valley was a threat to Rana Sanga. While Sanga wanted to confine Babur to Punjab, Babur accused Sanga of breach of agreement as Sanga did not join him against Ibrahim Lodi. The armies of Babur and Rana Sanga eventually fought the Battle of Khanwa in 1527, where Sanga was defeated.
• The Battle of Khanwa secured Babur’s position in the Delhi-Agra region. He then led a campaign (Battle of Chanderi) against Medini Rai of Chanderi in 1528, in which he captured Chanderi.
• But, the Afghans who were dominant in eastern Uttar Pradesh were not reconciled. In 1529, Babur started a campaign (Battle of Ghaghara) against them but could not win a decisive victory. He signed an agreement with Afghan chiefs, who were allowed to rule over Bihar. Shortly after, Babur died on 26th December 1530.
• Although Babur was an orthodox Sunni, he was not bigot. He was one of the two important writers in the Turkish language. He wrote ‘Tuzuk-i-Baburi’.

Significance of Babur’s Conquest of India

• • He brought Kabul and Qandhar within the North Indian Empire, which
• secured the North-west frontier for almost 200 years.
• increased India’s share of trade with China and Mediterranean seaports.

• Defeat of Lodi’s and the Rajput confederacy under Sanga, eventually led to the formation of an all-India Mughal empire.
• A new mode of warfare began in India. Although already known, Babur popularized gunpowder and artillery in India.
• He formed a state based on strength and prestige of the crown.

Humayun

Details

• Humayun succeeded Babur in 1530. He had various challenges in the form of consolidation of the infant Mughal empire, timurid tradition of dividing the empire among all the brothers, the Afghans who were thinking of expelling Mughals from India and growing power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• Shortly, Humayun undertook Gujarat campaign. He won both Gujarat and Malwa from Bahadur Shah, but also lost them in a quick succession. However, he succeeded in destroying the threat posed by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• Meanwhile, Sher Shah, a powerful Afghan sardar, increased his power when Humayun was busy in his Gujarat campaign. Although Sher Shah professed loyalty to the Mughals, he was planning to expel Mughals from India. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj (1540). This battle made Humayun a prince without a kingdom and he had to take a shelter at the court of Iranian king.
• The major cause of Humayun’s defeat was that he failed to understand the nature of the Afghan power. Afghan tribes were scattered over north India, who could always unite under a capable leader. Sher Shah gave them this leadership. Also, Humayun showed bad political sense in the form of his Bengal campaign against Sher Shah. Also, after Sher Shah’s victories he did not receive help from his brothers.
• But in 1555, with the breaking up of the Sur empire, Humayun was able to recover Delhi. But he died soon thereafter, after falling from the first floor of the library building in his fort at Delhi. His tomb was build by his favourte wife Bega Begum.

Sur Empire (1540-55)

Details

• Sher Shah Suri ascended the throne of Delhi in 1540. He ruled over the mightiest empire in the North India since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He added Malwa and Rajasthan to his territories. He died in 1545 and was succeeded by his son Islam Shah, who ruled till 1553. After Islam Shah’s death a civil war set in amongst his successors. This created an opportunity for Humayun, who in 1555 defeated Afghans, to recover Delhi and Agra.

Contributions of Sher Shah

• He re-established law and order across his empire.
• He improved communication by building roads which helped in fostering trade and commerce. He restored the Grand Trunk Road connecting Bengal with Northwest. He built sarais and inns along these roads. Many of these sarai developed into market-towns (qasbas) and stages for news service or dak-chowki.
• His currency reforms and standardisation of weights and measures all over the empire helped in increasing trade and commerce.
• For land revenue administration, he insisted on measurement of the sown land for computation of average produce to determine the state’s share, which was one-third of the average produce.
• The tomb built by Sher Shah for himself at Sasaram is seen as a culmination of Sultanat type of architecture and a starting point of a new Mughal style.

Akbar

Details

• Akbar was the greatest of the Mughal rulers. He was crowned in 1556. After the Second battle of Panipat between him (led by his wakil Bairam Khan) and Hemu, the Afghan leader, he established his control over the empire. During the first phase of expansion of the empire, he brought regions like Ajmer, Malwa, Garha-Katanga, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Bengal under his control.
• The administrative changes made by Akbar as well as his liberal religious policy resulted in rebellions in Gujarat, Bengal and Bihar. These rebellions kept the empire distracted for two years (1580-81). Akbar with the services of his nobles like Todar Mai, Raja Man Singh etc. successfully handled these rebellions.
• Soon after this, due to rising threat from Uzbeks, Akbar had to concentrate on the North-west frontier. He consolidated his power in the North-West and gave the empire a scientific frontier. He also captured Odisha (Earlier known as Orissa) and Dacca. With this, by the turn of the century the political integration of the North India was achieved.
• Hereafter, Akbar turned his attention towards the Deccan. He was afraid that sectarian rivalries of the Deccani states could spread into the Mughal empire in the North. Also, the Portuguese were trying to expand their position over the mainland. This along with proselytizing activities by the Portuguese impelled Akbar to get involved in the Deccani affairs.
• Akbar himself marched down to capture Khandesh in 1601. In the same year control was established over Berar, Ahmadnagar and parts of Telangana. However, no lasting solution could be arrived at for the Deccani problem, as Bijapur was yet to accept Mughal suzerainty. This situation was left to be tackled by Jahangir.

Land Revenue Administration under Akbar

• In the field of land revenue administration, Akbar instituted a new system called the dahsala (Ain-i-Dahsala). Under it, the average produce of different crops and average prices prevailing over the past 10 years were calculated. One third of the average produce was the state’s share. The revenue demand was in cash. This system was called the zabti system. The zabti system was associated with Raja Todar Mal.
• Other systems of assessment were also followed during Akbar’s period. The batai or ghalla-bakshi system was the most common and oldest of all. Under it, the produce was divided in the fixed proportion between the peasants and the state. Under batai, the peasants had the choice to pay in either cash or in kind, but the state preferred cash. Another system which was used was nasaq.
• Akbar was interested in advancement of cultivation. Under him, loans (taccavi) to peasants was provided for seeds, implements etc. In fixing of the land revenue, continuity of cultivation was taken into account. Also, the land was classified as per the quality of the land.

Mansabdari System

• Under this system, every officer was assigned a rank (Mansab). The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles, which was later raised to 7000. The rank decided the personal status (zat) of a noble and salary due to him as well as the number of cavalrymen (sawar) he was required to maintain. Ideally, for every one cavalryman, two horses had to be maintained.
• The Mansabdars were paid by assigning jagirs to them. But, sometimes paid in cash too. Akbar would not have been able to expand his empire and maintain his hold over it without a strong army. For this purpose, it was necessary for him to organize the nobility as well as his army. Akbar realized both these objectives by means of the mansabdari system.

Relations with the Rajputs

• Akbar expanded Humayun’s policy of winning over the Rajputs through matrimonial alliances. But, he did not insist upon matrimonial relations as a precondition. Many Rajputs, like rulers of Ranthambhor, Banswara etc. surrendered to him without entering into matrimonial relations. The Rajput policy also had the angle of broad religious toleration. The only state that defied Mughal suzerainty was Mewar, led by Rana Pratap.
• Akbar’s policy of inducting the Rajput rajas into Mughal service and treating them at par with Mughal nobles benefited. This along with his religious tolerance cemented Akbar’s ties with the Rajputs. Akbar’s Rajput policy was continued by his successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

Akbar’s Religious Policy

• Akbar followed a liberal religious policy. He emphasized that the state should be based on sulh-i-kul i.e. equal toleration of and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs. In 1575, Akbar built Ibadat Khana, the Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur Sikri, where he discussed religious and spiritual topics with selected theologians, mystics, scholarly courtiers and nobles. He tried to establish a new order tauhid-i-llahi which literally means ‘Divine Monotheism’.
• Akbar also introduced social and educational reforms. He stopped sati and allowed it only when a widow herself desired it. Widow remarriage was also legalized. The age of marriage was raised to 14 for girls and 16 for boys. The sale of wines and spirits were restricted. But, as Akbar was living in the age of superstition, these steps got limited success. Akbar also revised the educational syllabus wherein emphasis was given on moral and secular subjects like mathematics, agriculture, history, logic etc.

Jahangir

Details

• Jahangir succeeded to the throne in 1605 and ruled till 1627. His main achievement was the settlement of outstanding dispute with Mewar and thereby strengthening of the alliance with the Rajputs.
• He also subjugated Deccani states but preferred not to get deeply embroiled in the Deccani affairs. He settled the rebellion of the Afghan chiefs in the Bengal region. But the Persian conquest of Qandhar and Shah Jahan’s refusal to proceed to Qandhar to save it on apprehensions of court intrigue eventually led to a rebellion by Shah Jahan. This coupled with, worsening health of Jahangir led to the rise of Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan

Details

• Shah Jahan ascended the throne in 1628. During the confusion in the Agra due to Jahangir’s weak health, rebellion by Shah Jahan and ambitions of Mahabat Khan led to loss of control over Deccani States. To establish peace in the Deccan for the Mughals, Shah Jahan felt it was necessary to subjugate Ahmadnagar.
• Shah Jahan tried to form alliance with Adil Shah of Bijapur against Ahmadnagar. But in between the struggle against Ahmadnagar, Adil Shah felt the threat of Mughals and thus, he changed the sides. Therefore, Mughals failed to control the area. Hereafter, Shah Jahan turned his attention to Bijapur. At the same time he offered the division of Ahmadnagar between Mughals and Bijapur.
• This led to the treaty between Mughals and Bijapur in 1636. With this treaty, the Mughal suzerainty was established in the Deccan. But the ambitions of Maratha nobles like Shahji and after him, his son Shivaji, and of Golconda nobles kept the area disturbed. Also, arrival of Aurangzeb as the viceroy of the Deccan precipitated the crisis.

Administration during Jahangir and Shah Jahan

• The administrative machinery and the revenue system developed by Akbar were maintained with minor variations under Jahangir and Shah Jahan. However, some changes were made in the mansabdari system. Jahangir introduced du-aspah sih-aspah system under which selected nobles could be allowed to maintain a large quota of troopers, without raising their zat rank.
• This was further modified during Shah Jahan’s reign to reduce the number of troopers a noble was required to maintain. This reduction was a result of the financial stress on the exchequer due to number of reasons. This in turn affected the efficiency of the Mughal cavalry on the whole.
• Despite this the mansabdari system functioned properly under Shah Jahan due to his personal attention and services of highly competent wazirs.

Aurangzeb

Details

• The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by the war of succession among his sons. Aurangzeb with his high handed approach towards his father and brothers, succeeded to the throne. During his rule, the Mughal empire reached its territorial climax. It stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south and from Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.
• Aurangzeb was orthodox in his belief. He demolished many Hindu temples which created disquiet among large sections of the Hindus. Also re-imposition of jizyah in 1679 created resentment amongst the Hindus. But his religious beliefs cannot be considered as the basis of his political policies.
• Although Aurangzeb attached great value to the alliance with the Rajputs his policy of subjugation towards Marwar and Mewar weakened the alliance with the Rajputs. He was also involved in conflict with the Jats, Afghans and Sikhs. All this put strain on the empire. Moreover these preoccupations of Aurangzeb relaxed the pressure of Mughals on Shivaji during a crucial period of consolidation of Maratha kingdom.
• In 1681, Aurangzeb started his Deccan campaign. He successfully triumphed against Bijapur and Golconda. He made inroads in the Maratha kingdom too, but the Marathas were not defeated. Finally, in 1707 he died, leaving behind an empire which was sorely distracted, and in which all the internal problems were coming to a head.

Bahadur Shah-I

• He emerged victorious in war of succession that followed Aurangzeb’s death.
• He favored a pacific policy.
• He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh but later led campaign against the Sikhs, who rose in rebellion under Banda Bahadur.
• State finances deteriorated on the account reckless grant of Jagirs.

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

• He became king with the support of Zulfiqar Khan, who was appointed as the Wazir or Prime Minister.
• The administration was under Zulfiqar Khan.
• He encouraged ijarah or revenue farming, which resulted in oppression Jahandar Shah of the peasants.
• He was defeated by Farrukh Siyar supported by Saiyad brothers.

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)

• He was engaged in strife for power with Saiyad brothers, who had been gaining influence in administration of the Empire.
• He was killed by Saiyid brothers in 1719.

Saiyid Brothers

• Saiyid brothers-Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali Khan.
• They were popularly known as ‘king makers’ for their role in enthroning and dethroning kings at will
• Their influence in administration increased substantially.
• They tried to save the empire from rebellions and administrative disintegration but failed due to court intrigues

Muhammad Shah (1720-48)

• He neglected administration of the empire
• He himself indulged in court intrigues
• Nadir Shah invaded India during his reign.
• Area of effective control under the empire declined during his reign.

Ahmad Shah (1748-54)

• Son of Muhammad Shah Rangeela and Kudsiya Begum (a dancing girl).
• Ineffectual Mughal emperor of India from 1748 to 1754, who has been characterized as good-natured but incompetent and without personality, training, or qualities of leadership.
• Twice during his reign, the Afghan Ahmad Shah Abdali plundered the northwest Punjab area, extorting money and land from him.
• The Marathas snatched Malwa and Bundelkhand.
• His wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, blinded him and imprisoned him at Salimgarh.

Alamgir II (1754-59)

• He was the second son of Jahandar Shah and was raised to the throne by Imad-ul-Mulk after he deposed Ahmad Shah.
• Had to face repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• The famous Battle of Plassey ( 23 June c. 1757 CE) was fought during his tenure. The Battle of Plassey helped the British East India Company to seize control of Bengal.
• He was also murdered by his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk.

Shah Alam II / Ali Gauhar (1759-1806)

• • During his reign, the Mughal power was so depleted that it led to a saying in Persian “Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, Az Dili ta Palam”, meaning “The kingdom of Shah Alam is from Delhi to Palam,” Palam being a suburb of Delhi.
  • Due to his conflict with the wazir, he fled to Awadh (c. 1761 – 1764 CE). He returned to Delhi when Marathas re-established their hold and invited him to the capital.
    • Shah Alam spent his last years under the protection of the Maratha chief Sindhia, and, after the Second Maratha War (1803-05), of the British.
  • The third Battle of Panipat (c. 1761 CE) was fought during his reign between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
  • The Battle of Buxar was fought in c. 1764 CE between the forces under the command of the British East India Company, led by Hector Munro and the combined armies of Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh) and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam Ⅱ. The war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Allahabad (c. 1765 CE) under which Diwani rights (right to collect land revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were granted to the British East India Company.
• He was the first Mughal ruler who became an East India Company pensioner.

• • He was called ‘King of Delhi’ by the British, who issued coins bearing his name for 30 years after his death.

Akbar Shah / Akbar Ⅱ (1806-1837)

• He was the second son of Shah Alam II and the father of Bahadur Shah II.
• He sent Ram Mohan Roy as an ambassador to Britain and gave him the title of Raja.
• During his regime, in 1835, the East India Company (EIC) discontinued calling itself subject of the Mughal Emperor and issuing coins in his name.
• He was a great poet and is credited with the introduction of the Hindu-Muslim unity festival Phool Walon Ki Sair.

Bahadur Shah II / Zafar (1837-1858)

• He was the last Mughal emperor of India who reigned 1837-58. He was an accomplished poet and his pen name was Zafar (victory).
  • He was a poet, musician, and calligrapher, more an aesthete than a political leader.
• For most of his reign he was a client of the British and was without real authority.
• He was chosen as nominal leader of the revolt of 1857. After the rebellion was put down by the British, he was exiled to Burma (Myanmar) with his family.

Nadir Shah’s Invasion

Causes of the Invasion

• Negligence of the North-west Frontier: Aurangzeb was alert in the defence of the North-west frontier. But after 1707, the administration of Kabul and Ghazni became lax. For example, the salary of the soldiers was not paid for the last 5 years.
• Unkept Promise: Nadir Shah had entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah not to give shelter to the fugitive Afghans in Kabul. This promise was not kept by the Mughals.
• Abuse of Emissaries: The embassy sent by Nadir Shah to Delhi was attacked by the Mughal soldiers. Moreover, the practice of exchange of ambassadors with the Persian court was discontinued by the Mughals.
• Lure of Wealth: Nadir Shah was allured by the wealth of India.
• Invitation: He was invited to invade India by the Indian Amirs. This ensured him of the rot that had set in the Mughal Empire.

Course of invasion

• Consequently, Nadir Shah started the campaign in 1738. He dashed into Lahore without much resistance. The alarmed Mughal Emperor tried to gather force along with Nizam-ul-Mulk and Saadat Khan. But disunity, lack of planning, mutual jealousies led to the defeat of the Mughal forces in the Battle of Karnal (February, 1739). Nadir Shah marched to Delhi and ransacked it. His total plunder was estimated to be around 70 Crores. He carried away the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan.

Impact of Nadir Shah’s Invasion

• Apart from the financial loss, it eroded the prestige of the Mughals. The Marathas and the foreign trading companies took advantage of this later.
• The central administration was paralysed.
• The impoverished nobles tried to recover their losses by rack-renting peasants. They fought for rich jagirs.
• The loss of Kabul and areas west of Indus exposed the Empire to the threat of invasions from North-west.

Ahmed Shah Abdali’s Invasion

Details

• • In 1747, after the assassination of Nadir Shah, Ahmed Shah Abdali declared himself the ruler of Qandhar. Soon he formed the modern kingdom of Afghanistan. He invaded India number of times between 1748 to 1767. He fought and defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• Impact of Abdali’s Invasions

• • Abdali’s invasions hastened the downfall of the Mughal Empire.
  • The frequency of the raids paralysed the administration.
  • The finance of the Empire was weakened.
  • Importantly, it gave a big blow to the Maratha ambition of controlling the Mughal Empire.
  • The confusion created by the raids led to the rise of regional powers like, the Sikhs, the Rohillas etc.

Responsibility of Aurangzeb

• Under Aurangzeb’s rule, the Mughal Empire reached its territorial zenith. But, it expanded beyond the control of the central authority. To control such a vast Empire at the time when means of communication was undeveloped was beyond the capabilities of weak successors of Aurangzeb.
• Moreover, the religious policies of Aurangzeb created discontent in the Empire. It led to rebellions by the Sikhs, Jats, Bundelas etc. Also, his Rajput policy alienated the Rajputs. His policy of aggressive imperialism against the Deccani states and the Marathas drained the resources of the Empire.

Weak-Successors and Nobles

• A centralised rule like that of Mughals needs strong Emperors to control it. But the weak successors of Aurangzeb, who gave importance to luxurious life and ignored the administration, exposed the limitations of the centralised rule. The military too, was ignored. This resulted in rebellions, rise of regional powers and strengthening of powers like the Marathas. It also led to foreign invasions, which plundered the Empire of its resources.
• The nobles followed the example of their weak Emperors. They either took to luxurious life or carved out independent states for themselves. They also played the role of ‘kingmakers’ in the war of succession by organizing themselves in various factions. This factionalism was so strong that the nobles failed to unite even during foreign invasions.

Military Weaknesses

• The organization of the army on the feudal basis had its own limitations. The soldiers held mansabdar as their chief rather than the Emperor. This defect assumed alarming proportion during the later Mughals.
• Also, the military lacked discipline, cohesion and modern equipment. The Mughal army was unwieldy to manage in wars. The military officials were infamous for changing sides. Due to financial crises, soldiers remained unpaid a number of times. Such military, without coherence and loyalty could not be expected to fight for the Empire.

Financial Crisis

• Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaign emptied the treasury and ruined the trade and commerce. The wars damaged the standing crops and thus demoralized peasantry gave up agriculture. This further affected land revenue collection.
• Under the later Mughals, the situation deteriorated further. The independence of regional powers affected imperial revenue. Moreover, the wars of succession, lavish living of the Emperors and the nobles emptied the treasury. The payments in the form of jagirs and foreign invasions also affected resources of the Empire.

Rise of Marathas

• Marathas were the most important external cause that brought about the collapse of the Mughal Empire. A policy of Hindu Empire envisaged by the Peshwas could only be realized with the fall of the Mughal Empire.
• The Maratha ambitions were buttressed by the nature of the Mughal Empire which failed to unite Hindus and Muslims. Many Indian chiefs looked upon the Mughal rulers as foreigners and as enemies of India and of Hindu religion.

Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali

• The invasions by Nadir Shah and Abdali exposed the military weakness of the Mughal Empire. They plundered the Empire of its financial resources.

European Companies

• The medieval character of the Mughal Empire was challenged by the dynamic and progressive West. In the race of civilizations the Europeans outperformed the Indians.

Impact of the Mughal Rule

Political

Social

Economic

Cultural

– Mughals led to political integration of the country and institutionalisation of the state.

– They secured the north-west frontiers of India and also the European companies from gaining territorial control as long as they were strong.

– Mughal state of affair were largely secular.

– Their rule did not help in the improvement of the women.

– Purdah system spread.

– Nobility increased inequality.

– The caste system dominated, despite the sufi movement.

– The orthodox elements prevented modernisation of education.

– The Indian economy continued to be feudal.

– Silver currency, the roads, sarais, etc. had direct impact on the growth of trade and handicrafts.

– International Trade was poor due to inferior naval strength.

– Agriculture also suffered.

– Innovation was not encouraged hence Science and Technology suffered.

– The Mughals patronised art and architecture.

– They introduced char-bagh style pletra dura, etc.

– Built magnificent structures and mainlt used red sandstone and Marble.

– They patronised paintings which also influenced the regional styles like Rajasthani Style, Pahadi Style, etc.

– Also, many court poets of Mughals were musicians.

Saadat Ali Khan

Details

• Saadat Ali Khan I was declared as the first Subedar Nawab (Governor) of the Mughals in Awadh province from 1722 to 1739. Son of a wealthy merchant of Khurasan, at the age of 25, he accompanied his father Muhammad Nasir and took part in the campaign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb against the Marathas.
• He was honored with the title of Khan Bahadur for his contribution to the Mughal Emperor. He was among the commanding Mughal generals in the Battle against Nadir Shah. Saadat Khan was captured during the battle and died in the massacre of Delhi by Nadir Shah on 19 March 1739.
• Faizabad, the capital city of Awadh, was founded in 1730 by Saadat Ali Khan. He is the founder of the lineage Nawab of Awadhs.
• He was succeeded by Nawab Safdarjang and Nawab Shuja-uddaula who further consolidated power in the awadh region.

Political Sphere of Influence

• After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Nawabs of Awadhs exercised significant influence in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region.
• Safdarjang, who succeeded Saadat Khan, was an able administrator. He was not only effective in keeping control of Awadh, but also rendered valuable assistance to the weakened Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah.
• Safdarjang was given governorship of Kashmir by the Mughal Emperor, gradually became a central figure at the Delhi court. He gained complete control of administration in the Mughal Empire in the later years of Muhammad Shah. When Ahmad Shah Bahadur ascended the throne at Delhi in 1748, Safdar Jung was given the title of Chief Minister of Hindustan.
• Shuja-ud-Daulah, the son of Safdarjang, was also an able administrator. He was chosen as Grand Wazir by Shah Alam II. Shuja-ud-daulah, the 3rd Nawab, allied with Mir Qasim of Bengal against the British, lost the crucial battle of Buxar in 1764. This resulted in beginning of the political influence of British in the Awadh region.
• Given the strategic significance of the region, British always maintained an upper hand in the region. After installing Saadat Khan II as Nawab in 1801, they pressurized him to cede half of the Awadh to him. Even at the time of first war of Independence in 1857, Awadh was a crucial political region.

Religion

• The Nawabs of Awadh belong to Persian Shia Muslim dynasty from Nishapur. They encouraged the existing Persian literature to shift from Delhi to Awadh. During that period Awadh also witnessed a steady stream of scholars, poets, jurists, architects, and painters from Iran. Nawab of Awadhs like the erstwhile great Mughal rulers was largely tolerant in their religious outlook.
• Saadat Khan, the founder of the Awadh Royal House, had many Hindus in his service who from time to time helped him to achieve his goal.
• Shuja-ud-daula, the 3rd Nawab, did not impose undue restrictions on the personal freedom of Hindus as well as on the public celebrations of their religious festivals. Many Hindu saints who came to Ayodhya were allowed to settle down and granted plots of land for the erection of temples and Dharmashalas for pilgrims. Hindus and Muslims used to celebrate each other’s festivals and there was not restriction on the Hindus.

Economy

• As discussed earlier, Awadh was the region of the fertile land in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Therefore, the economy during the reign of Nawabs was dominantly agrarian in nature. The traditional crops were sugarcane, wheat and rice. Due to presence of well managed supply chain, peasants were generally prosperous under the nawabs.
• It is also pertinent to mention that Awadh was one of the prosperous provinces of the Mughal Empire. This period also witnessed the decline of the traditional urban trade centers such as Delhi, Agra, Burhanpur etc. The new trade centers were established in Lucknow, Faizabad etc.
• To remove economic hardships, Nawabs also commissioned various public works in which the laborers were paid from the treasury. One such initiative had led to the construction of the majestic Bara Imambara in Lucknow. The East India Company after establishing influence over Awadh, plundered it of its wealth, and resulted in the decline of the Industrial towns such as Kanpur and Lucknow.

Society

• The society at the time of Nawabs of Awadhs was largely traditional in nature. Cities such as Lucknow, Faizabad, Jaunpur etc. witnessed the growth of the synthesis of the Hindu-Muslim culture also commonly known as Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb.
• The caste system was still highly prevalent as the top positions in the administrations were generally occupied by the Brahmins. With the rise of British influence, and development of mercantile trade, the trading class also assumed significant role in the society.
• Jagat Seth was one of the prominent people, who dealt in hundis – a type of negotiable instrument to send money from one place to another.
• Education was still limited to the privileged few, and due to adoption of purdah system from cultural synthesis, the condition of women further deteriorated in the society.

Literature

• The Nawabs of Awadh, patronized literature and several noted writers and poets were part of their court. The period saw the development of Indo-Persian genre of the literature. Urdu was also a popular language of literature at that time.
• Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was among the great patrons of literature. The renowned urdu poet ‘Ghalib’ was in the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Apart from him, other notable persons were ‘Barq’, ‘Ahmad Mirza Sabir’, ‘Mufti Munshi’, and ‘Aamir Ahmad Amir’, who wrote books at the orders of Wajid Ali Shah.
• Wajid Ali shah, himself, was an accomplished writer and wrote under the pseudonym ‘Akhtar’. He was considered as distinguished scholar and as eminent poet. Having good command over Persian and Urdu, Wajid Ali Shah also wrote in the popular dialect of Awadhi language. Huzn-i-Akhtar, is considered as his most important works, which is autobiographical in nature and contains nearly 1276 couplets.

Art and Architecture

Art

• Awadh under the rule of Nawabs reached the glorious heights in the development of Fine Arts and Performing Arts.
• The paintings and Music of that era was known to be the best in the world. The paintings of Awadh provided a different way of representing the prevalent political, social and cultural atmosphere that was distinctly different from the conventional Mughal style or the European style of perspective art. Paintings of Awadh were of traditional Indian art form in which high importance was given to rich detailing, symbolism, use of tempera colors and intricate drawing.
• During the colorful decades of Nawabs rule in awadh, Lucknow emerged as one of the most celebrated centre of music, drama, dance, painting and poetry.
• Music in India went through different stages of growth for four centuries from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century resulting in the creation Hindustani music of today. This period also saw the birth of many of the modern musical forms, like Khayal and Thumri. This was also the period of the establishment of Gharanas, where the elite artists tried to protect their traditions and began to transmit them within the family to their direct descendents.

Architecture

• In the initial period, the architecture in Awadh was heavily influenced with the Mughal Architecture.
• Shuja-Ud-Daulah in 1765 constructed a chowk (Central Market Place) in Faizabad, which was reminiscent of grand chowks of Mughal Empire. The chowk was characterized by the grand mosque having 3 bulbous domes and minarets at each corner.
• The tombs in Faizabad were also modeled on the Mughal tombs; particularly the tomb for Shuja ud Daula, built approximately in 1775. The tomb of his wife, Bahu Begum, constructed approximately forty years later, also displayed significant Mughal features. The tombs possess bulbous domes and are set in Charbagh style which was the most striking and praiseworthy mughal architectural format.
• The architecture developed by Later Nawabs in Lucknow is placed generally into two broad categories.
  • First is the structures built by the nawabs for their own residences or as public works and which often reflect considerable European influence,
  • while the other category was the religious structures which were usually based upon the architecture of earlier Indo-lslamic traditions.
• In this period a series of palaces were constructed in Lucknow. Asaf ud-Daula’s Macchi Bhavan was built approximately in 1774, and the historic Qaiser Bagh, was built approximately about 1848 by Wajid Ali Shah. In 1784, Nawab Asaf ud-Daula had constructed an enormous Imambara, which was a hall used during the celebrations of Muharram and was originally designed for storing movable shrines (taziya) employed in these ceremonies.

Murshid Quli Khan

• Murshid Quli Khan was the first Nawab of Bengal, who served from 1717 to 1727. Murshid Quli Khan, who was a brahmin by birth belonged to Burhanpur. After being converted to Islam he was known as Muhammad Hadi.
• Later on, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb gave him the title of “Murshid Quli Khan”. In 1698, the Mughal emperor made him the Diwan of Hyderabad. The success achieved by him there resulted in his elevation to the posts of Faujdar of Murshidabad and the Diwan of Bengal in 1700. In 1703, he was made the subedar of Orissa and further in 1704 he assumed the post of Diwan of Bihar.
• In 1717, he was appointed as the Subedar of Bengal, one of the most influential positions in the Mughal Empire. He transferred his capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad, which was accepted by the Mughal Emperor Farukh Siyar.
• He assumed the title of Alauddin Zafar Khan Bahadur and Bengal was virtually acquired a status of a semiindependent province. Though, largely independent in nature, he did not challenge the sovereignty of the Mughal emperor. He continued the practice of revenue remission to Delhi.

Alivardi Khan

• Alivardi Khan ruled as the Nawab of Bengal during the period of 1740-1756. He is famous as one of the few Mughal-era leaders who were victorious during the Battle of Burdwan against the Maratha Empire. His birth name was Mirza Muhammad Ali and his father was an Arab in the service of Azam Shah, son of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
• After the death of Azam Shah, the family of Mirza Muhammad Ali fell into poverty. He managed to find employment under the Subedar of Orissa, Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan. With the promotion of Shuja-ud-Din to the post of the Nawab of Bengal, his future prospects further widened.
• In 1728, Shuja-ud-Din promoted Mirza Muhammad Ali as Faujdar (General) of Rajmahal and gave him the title of Alivardi Khan in 1740. In the Battle of Giria, he defeated and killed Shuja ud-Din’s successor, Sarfaraz Khan took control of Bengal and Bihar. Immediately after assuming power, Alivardi Khan got it legitimized by the Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur and further resumed the policies of Murshid Quli Khan.
• In 1747, Marathas under the leadership of Raghoji, attacked the territories of the Alivardi Khan. Alivardi Khan and the Mughal Army fought with the Marathas at the Battle of Burdwan where the Maratha forces were completely routed. This was one of the most significant victories for Bengal Nawabs. Alivardi Khan had a reign of 16 years, and was mostly engaged in various wars against the Marathas during his rule. In his last days, he focused his attention to rebuilding and restoring Bengal.

Siraj-ud-Daulah

• Siraj-ud-Daulah was the last independent Nawab of Bengal for the period 1756 -1757. The end of his reign resulted in the beginning of British East India Company’s rule over Bengal which further spread to almost whole of India.
• He was the son of, Amina Begum, who was the daughter of Alivardi Khan. Since, after his birth Alivardi Khan attached greater heights in his political ambitions, hence Siraj-ud-Daulah was designated as the successor of Alivardi Khan. Therefore, he was imparted the education and training suitable for a future Nawab. He also accompanied Alivardi Khan in his military ventures against the Marathas during the Battle of Burdwan in 1746.
• Siraj-ud-Daulah succeeded Alivardi Khan as the Nawab of Bengal in 1756. He had reservation regarding the British presence in Bengal.
• Some of the reasons for his resentment against the British where:
  • He was apprehensive that East India Company was involved in instigating a conspiracy to oust him by members of his own court.
  • The company had strengthened the fortification around the Fort William without intimating it to the Nawab.
  • The company had greatly abused the trade privileges granted to them by the Mughal rulers in form of Dastaks. It caused heavy loss of customs duties for the government.
  • The company had given shelter to some of his officers, who fled after misappropriating government funds.
• When Siraj-ud-Daulah came to know that East India Company had started enhancement of military preparedness at Fort William in Calcutta, he got worried and asked for its immediate cessation. As the Company ignored his directives, Siraj-Ud-Daulah was left with no choices and he captured Kolkata from them in 1756. During this operation, it is alleged that on his orders 146 British subjects were forcefully crammed in a 20 by 20 foot chamber, which is also known as the infamous Black Hole incident of Calcutta. Only 23 people were said to have survived the overnight ordeal in such inhospitable conditions.

Battle of Plassey

• The Battle of Plassey is considered as the turning point in the history of India as it paved the way to eventual British domination in Indian Sub-Continent.
• After Siraj-Ud-Daulah captured Kolkata in 1756 and the Black Hole incident occurred, the British retaliated by sending fresh troops from Chennai, commanded by Sir Robert Clive, to recapture the fort and avenge the attack. The Nawab’s army was thin as most of them were deployed in north to counter the threat from Ahmed Shah Abdali.
• Moreover, it was led by Mir Jafar, who was disgruntled with the Nawab, and was looking for an opportunity to settle the score. With the help of Mir Jafar and several other officials from the side of Nawab, British forces defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah in June 1757 in the battle of Plassey.
• Siraj-ud-daulah fled the capital Murshidabad, but soon he was captured and executed. This brought an end to the reign of independent Nawabs in Bengal and marked the beginning of British Supremacy.

Political Sphere of Influence

• Murshid Quli Khan rose through the ranks to become one of the trusted generals of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. When the royal treasury was on the verge of bankruptcy due to Deccan conquests of Aurangzeb, he contributed a sum of 1 Lakh Rupees to the treasury through his efficient revenue administration. He was successful in obtaining the approval of emperor for shifting of his capital from Dacca to Murshidabad.
• With the weakening of Mughal Empire after the demise of Aurangzeb, Murshid Quli Khan, consolidated his sole and supreme authority in Bengal and became a significant ruler in the eastern part of India. The political influence of the Nawabs of Bengal was at its pinnacle during the reign of Alivardi Khan and Siraj-ud-Daulah.

Religion

• Although, Islam was the dominant religion, still Nawabs of Bengal were largelytolerant about Hinduism and other religions. Under succeeding Nawabs, Bengali Hindus, because of their talents and mastery of Persian Language, came to occupy the highest civil posts under the subahdar and many of the military posts under the faujdars. Under later nawabs many Hindus held the office of Chancellor or Exchequer.

Socio-economic Structure

• There was distinct division in the society at the time of Nawabs of Bengal. Ryots or Peasants occupied the bottom of pyramid and often have to pat large taxes and revenues.
• The trader class attained eminent position and some of the merchants like Jagat seth and Amir chand were like a large scale bankers in their own right.
• Later, British East India Company also approached the Mughal emperor and obtained a royal farman for carrying out the trade and commerce in the region of Bengal. They coaxed the Mughal King Farukh Siyar to issue dastaks which entitled them to carry out duty free trade in the Bengal Region.
• Bengali society, with the rising western influence, attained significant growth in education and skill development. The status of women was much better than their contemporaries in other parts of India. They had almost equal access to education as their male counterparts. This enlightened Indian society and later on became the nucleus of the India struggle for freedom.

Art and Architecture

• The architectural landscape of Bengal after the decline of Mughal Empire came to be dominated by three active groups, who were responsible for different types and forms of buildings:
  • Wealthy Hindu bankers, landholders and merchants constructed splendid terracotta temples on large scale.
  • The architecture of Calcutta, which came under British influence, has a distinct nature to it.
  • The Nawabs of Murshidabad chiseled out their own architectural artifacts in the Northern Bengal Region.
• Jami Masjid was one of the finest examples of the Nawab’s architecture, which is still a prominent monument in Murshidabad. It is one of the largest mosques in the eastern India. Later an elegant Imambara was also constructed at the time of Alivardi Khan. Most of the monuments constructed in Nawab’s reign were religious in nature.

Nizam-ul-Mulk

• Nizam-ul-Mulk, often shortened as Nizam, was the title of the sovereigns of Hyderabad State, belonging to the Asaf Jah dynasty who ruled from 1724 onwards.
• It was founded by Mir Qamar-udDin Siddiqi, who was a viceroy of the Deccan under the Mughal Empire from 1713 to 1721. In 1724, Mughal control of the deccan area weakened, and Mir Qamarud-Din Siddiqi declared himself independent in Hyderabad. He adopted the title of Asaf Jah-I and initiated the Asaf Jahi dynasty.
• Nizams were in conflict with the Marathas in Deccan, and after defeat in various battles such as of Palkhed, Bhopal, Rakshasbhuvan, and Kharda, accepted to pay Chauth to Marathas. After the British victory in the Second Anglo Maratha War in 1805, the Nizam of Hyderabad came under the protection of the British East India Company.

Asaf Jah I

• He ruled for the next twenty four years. He was a wise and an able ruler, and through his efforts safeguarded his kingdom from the Marathas and also was successful in keeping the English, Portuguese and the French at bay.
• He subdued the refractory zamindars and showed tolerance towards the Hindus who had economic power in their hands and as result, Hyderabad witnessed the emergence of a new regional elite who supported the Nizam.
• After the death of Nizam, Asaf Jah, Hyderabad began to experience a series of crises. During the subsequent years, the Marathas, Mysore and the Carnatic – all settled their territorial scores against Hyderabad. The situation improved again after 1762 during the period of Nizam Ali Khan, who seized control of the administration and during his long reign lasting up to 1803, he settled border disputes with his neighbours giving Hyderabad the much desired political stability.

Political Sphere of Influence

• Although, Hyderabad was a very prosperous state, its political influence was largely nominal in nature. In its earlier years, its influence was restricted by the conquest of Marathas, who even extracted the taxes (Chauth) from the Hyderabad State.
• From the time of third Nizam, Hyderabad came under the British influence. The Nizams ruled in the strict supervision on the Residents.
• The political influence of the state saw significant increase after the first war of independence in 1857. The Nizams were rewarded for their loyalty to crown by exalting their status. The significance increased further after the cooperation of Nizams in the 1st and 2nd world war to the British. Due to his increased status among the princely states, the last Nizam of Hyderabad even contemplated for remaining independent before acceding to the Indian state.

Religion

• Islam was the state religion of Hyderabad, although overall it was followed by around 13% of the population. The Nizams were largely tolerant of the Hindus. Some Hindus even attained the high position of Diwan in the administration.
• At the time of independence, the last Nizam formed a Muslim militia of Razakars whose main purpose was to preserve the dominance of Islamic minority in the Hyderabad State. In 1948 the Razakars indulged in large scale violence, murdering Hindus, abducting and raping women, burning houses and fields, and looting non-Muslim property in a widespread reign of terror.

Literature

• The reign of Nizams saw literary growth after the beginning of printing in Hyderabad. In 1824 AD, Urdu Ghazals with title of Gulzar-e-Mahlaqa written by Mah Laqa Bai was printed and published from Hyderabad.
• The reign of Nizam VII saw many advances in literary work. Urdu was introduced as a language of court, administration and education.
• Many regional scholars and poets (Shibli Nomani, Dagh Dehlvi, Fani, Josh Etc.) made Hyderabad their home, that grew and brought reforms in the literary and poetry work.

Art and Architecture

• Examples of Qutub Shahi architecture are Charminar, Mecca Masjid and Charkaman which were constructed in the 15th century. These were built with massive granite walls using granite and lime mortar as the chief ingredients. Osman Ali Khan, Nizam VII, is called as the maker of modern Hyderabad.
• The buildings constructed during his reign are impressive and represent a rich variety of architecture. Osmania University, Osmania General Hospital and High Court are designed in the styles of medieval and the Mughal architecture.
• The Nizam, applied the European styles. British influence is present in some of the constructions such as Falaknuma and King Kothi Palaces.
• Hyderabad has many famous historical sites constructed during Qutb Shahi and Asif Jahi period, including the Golconda, Chowmahalla Palace,etc.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh

Political Sphere of Influence

• Sikh empire was a considerable power in the earlier 19th century in the north-western part of India. British Crown was wary about the Muslim invaders from the Central Asian region. Therefore, Sikh Empire was utilized as a buffer state.
• In 1806, Ranjit Singh signed a treaty with the East India Company, in which he agreed that his Sikh empire would not expand south of the Sutlej River, and the Company agreed that it would also not attempt to cross the Sutlej River into the Sikh territory.
• The Sikh Empire extended to Multan in 1818, and gradually the whole Bari Doab came under his rule. In 1819, Maharaja Ranjit Singh defeated the Afghan rulers and annexed Srinagar and Kashmir, stretching his rule in the north and the Jhelum valley, beyond the Himalayas.
• After Ranjit Singh’s death, there was confusion in the Sikh state. The English, who were on the lookout for an opportunity to expand their territories, conquered the Sikh kingdom (1839-40).

Religion

• The reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh is known for its secular nature and tolerance towards other religions. Men of different religions and races served in his army and occupied high positions of authority in his government.
• The Sikh army led by Ranjit Singh never indulged in demolishing of the places of worship belonging to the enemy. He also restored and built various historical Sikh Gurdwaras most notably the Golden Temple of Amritsar Maharaja Ranjit Singh gave equal patronage to Hinduism and also visited Sufi mosques and other holy places. His court also reflected the secular pattern, where the Prime Minister was a Dogra Hindu, his foreign Minister was a Muslim, and his finance Minister was a Brahmin. There were no incidents of forced conversions in his time.

Art and Architecture

• Maharaja Ranjit Singh was a great patron of Sikhism. He renovated the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar, and much of the present decorative gilding and marble work was conducted under the patronage of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
• In the memory of the Tenth Guru of Sikhism Guru Gobind Singh, he built two of the most sacred shrines of Sikhism. These are Takht Sri Patna Sahib, and Takht Sri Hazur Sahib in Nanded.

Shivaji

• Shivaji Bhonsle founded the Maratha dynasty and is celebrated as a warrior Maratha king. He carved out the Maratha territory by arresting the enclaves of the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur that formed the foundation of the Maratha Empire. In 1674, he was crowned as the Chhatrapati of his state at Raigad, the capital of Maratha Kingdom.
• Shivaji established an empire with the help of disciplined military and well-structured administrative organizations. He was the pioneer in the innovation in the military tactics, devising various unconventional methods which were hinged on strategic factors like geography, terrain, speed, and surprise often called as Guerilla warfare to defeat his larger and more powerful enemies. He also reversed the progress of Islam and revived many Hindu political traditions and court conventions. He promoted the usage of Marathi and Sanskrit in his administration, in place of Persian.
• The rising power of the Maratha State under Shivaji resulted in the conflict with the Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb. Shivaji caused many reverses to the Mughal army in Deccan, and later peace was established via Treaty of Purnadar. Shivaji was also kept as captive by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, but he managed to escape in disguise.
• Shivaji passed away in 1680, and left behind a state which was always in conflict with the Mughals. Territories exchanged hands repeatedly between the Marathas and the Mughals for the period of 27 years. The conflict finally ended in the conclusive defeat for the Mughals in 1707.

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath

• After the tragic execution of Sambhaji, there was a battle of succession in Maratha State between Sahuji, grandson of Shivaji, who was released from the captivity by Mughals and Tarabai, the widow of Rajaram who succeeded Sambhaji. Bajirao Vishwanath was instrumental in securing the throne for Sahuji, by hatching the Barabhai conspiracy.
• For his service he was appointed as Peshwa by the young Maratha Emperor to consolidate his grip on Maratha State which was under a civil war and persistent attack by the Mughals under Aurangzeb.
• Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761) further extended the empire in different directions. Maratha power reached its height under him. The Marathas soon reached Delhi and offered their support to the Mughal emperor. The expulsion of Ahmad Shah Abdali’s agent from Punjab brought the Marathas into an open conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali. The battle between the two forces was fought in Panipat in January 1761. The Marathas were completely defeated.
• Nearly 28,000 soldiers were killed. The Peshwa died in June 1761. The Battle of Panipat destroyed the possibility of the Marathas emerging as the strongest power in India.
• For the British, this battle was of immense significance. The Maratha defeat cleared the way for the rise of British power in India. It should be noted that the Indian powers were strong enough to destroy the Mughal Empire but not strong enough to unite it to create anything new in its place.
• Possibly the Marathas alone possessed the strength to fill the political vacuum created by the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. But they lacked political vision and succumbed to British power.

Political Sphere of Influence

• At its zenith, the Maratha Empire occupied the territories of Central and Northern Indian sub-continent. They were the sore in the eyes of the Mughal Empire and after their decline; they got the authority to impose tax (Chauth and Sardeshmukhi) on the Mughal territories.
• They were in conflict with the regional powers such as Mysore State in South and Hyderabad State in Deccan. Later, they proved to be the most dominant obstacle in the expansion of the British Empire in India. The 2nd Anglo-Maratha war resulted in the conclusive defeat of the Marathas and their influence and authority declined thereafter.

Religion

• The Maratha state was the symbol of Hindu resurgence after the centuries of the Islamic dominance. As expected, the dominant religion of the State was Hinduism, and most of the official work was also carried out with Hindu traditions.
• In Maratha State, Religious tolerance and religious pluralism were important pillars as these were fundamental beliefs of Shivaji, the founder of the empire. One of the unique features of the Maratha Empire was that it did not adhere to the caste system. It was most notable that the, the Brahmins (priestly class) were the prime ministers of the Kshatriya (warrior class) (Maratha) emperors.
• The policy of religious tolerance provided equal importance to Hindu interests and exerted important backpressure against the expanding Mughal influence.

Art and Architecture

• Due to their protracted wars with the Mughals, the earlier Maratha rulers had neither the time nor the resources for investing in making of buildings or patronizing arts. The characteristic of the Maratha style, can be analyzed from, the later buildings such as forts, palaces and temples. Brick, wood, mortar and stone were the materials used for construction.
• It can be said that the Maratha architecture lacked the beauty and grace of the architecture of the Mughals. But they excelled in the fort architecture. The wood work used for decorating palaces and other civil buildings was intricately done. Maratha art could have further developed and would have attained a distinctive character but it could not be achieved because of the turbulent times.

Haidar Ali

Details

• He was born in 1721 in a normal family. He entered the service of Nanjaraj and was appointed faujdar of Dindigul in 1755. He was uneducated but possessed a keen intellect. He was a man of great energy and daring determination. He was a brilliant commander and a shrewd diplomat.
• Haidar Ali soon found his opportunity in prevailing anarchy which led to the wars which involved Mysore for more than twenty years. He was clever enough to use the opportunities that came his way. And thus he gradually raised in the Mysore army.

Administration

• Though Haidar Ali was illiterate he was an efficient administrator. He took over Mysore when it was weak. There was anarchy prevailing everywhere after the collapse of Vijayanagar Kingdom.
• Mysore was also facing the crisis of efficient leadership. The state was divided and economy of state was also not doing well. There were chances of being captured by the neighbouring Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad. Mysore was in crisis. It needed efficient leadership. Haider Ali recognised the problems and took control of situation.

Military Reforms

• He was well aware of the developments going on in world through the companies which came for trade. He was also worried with the calculation of his neighbours.
• Thus as soon as he took the throne he soon recognized the advantages of western military training and applied it to the troops under his own command. He established a modern arsenal in Dindigul in 1755 with the help of French experts.

Religion

• Though he was himself a staunch believer of Islam, he practiced religious toleration. He also gave priority to merit. Those who were capable were elevated up the order irrespective of the faith or religion he belonged. Thus he recruited many other officials in his administration. His first Dewan was a Hindu.
• He used to respect all the religions and allowed people to pursue their faith. He encouraged temple construction and religious activity of the Hindu majority Mysore province. This policy was also followed by his son Tipu Sultan. But there are also some historians who doubt the religious policies of Tipu Sultan.

Political Strategies

Came to Power

• In 1761, Haidar Ali overthrew Nanjaraj and established his authority over the Mysore state.
• He extended full control over the rebellious poligars (zamindars) and conquered the territories of Bidnur, Sunda, Sira, Canara and Malabar.

Good Negotiator:

• But Peshwa Madhavao I adopted an aggressive policy. Haidar Ali was defeated at Ratehalli in May 1764. After that a treaty was concluded. Haidar paid 28 lakhs as tribute and restored territories between the Krishna and Tungabhadra River.
• Again in 1766, the Peshwa marched against Haidar. Nizam Ali also joined the Peshwa in this conflict. But soon after Nizam Ali concluded an alliance with the British. This made Peshwa to march alone against Mysore state. Again Haider Ali was compelled to submit. Haidar agreed to pay a tribute of Rs 33 lakhs to the Peshwa and got back most of his territory including Sira, Chik Balapur and Kolar, but the Marathas retained Hoskote and some other places. Nizam Ali thought it proper to come to terms with Haidar.

Changing calculations with English

• In the beginning, Haidar looked upon the British power as hostile to him. He along with his cavalry made a sudden dash on Madras in March 1769. The English made peace in the next month providing for mutual restoration of conquest and a defensive alliance.
• As a realist, Haidar felt that the defensive alliance of 1769 must be the basis of his foreign policy. This will help him against the Nizam (his traditional enemy) and the Marathas (dangerous neighbour). But soon he was disappointed by the British. The English gave him no aid during the Maratha invasion of 1769-72. As he once said ‘I have wasted several years of my life by the supposition that England was a great nation.’

First Anglo Maratha War:

• The behaviour of English made him to change his propositions of foreign policy. He decided to support the Maratha, the Nizam and Bhonsle during the First Anglo-Maratha War, as a common struggle against the English.

• This brought in the hostilities of British towards Mysore and their ambition to gain control of Northern Circars. Also Nizam of Hyderabad instigated British against Mysore. But Haidar Ali managed the situation well despite having no allies. He defeated the British during first Anglo-Mysore war.
• French was a key Mysore ally and during the Anglo – French rivalry in Europe, Mysore also got dragged in. Thus second Anglo Mysore war started. Initially Mysore made significant success. But later on peace was reached between France and British. This also led to peace in Mysore war. But during this war, Haidar Ali died. Later on his son Tipu Sultan continued the war.

Tipu Sultan

Details

• He ruled Mysore till his death at the hands of the British in 1799. He was a man of complex character. He was young and energetic. He usually took quick decisions. Unlike his father he was not a great strategist. The Madras Governor, Lord Macartney, who was anxious for peace, concluded the Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784) on the basis of mutual restoration of conquests and release of prisoners. Warren Hastings regarded the treaty as ‘humiliating pacification.’
• Mysore under Tipu continued to grow as a formidable power. He sent envoys to France and Turkey (1787) and received some vague encouragement.
• The new Governor General, Lord Cornwallis, from the moment of his arrival, considered that a war with Tipu was inevitable.
• Tipu’s attack on the Raja of Travancore, an ally of the Company, freed the Governor-General from the strict policy of neutrality laid down by Pitt’s India Act of 1784. Lord Cornwallis found no difficulty in securing the alliance of the Peshwa and the Nizam. In this war (Third Anglo Mysore War, 1790-92), the Mysore ruler was defeated.
• The Treaty of Seringapatam (March 1792) deprived Tipu Sultan half of his territories. After the treaty, Tipu paid a visit to the Maratha general Haripant to get cooperation against the English. He warned him that English are their real enemy and not Mysore.
• Tipu Sultan was a brave man. Instead of being crippled by the British after the 3rd Anglo-Mysore war, Tipu showed unexpected signs of recovery:
  • He strengthened the fortifications of Seringapatam,
  • Reorganised the army and tried to establish contact with France.
• This threatened the British. Wellesley immediately called Tipu Sultan to sever his connections with the French and enter into a Subsidiary Alliance with the British. Tipu Sultan was a man of self respect. He could not accept the stern conditions made by British. This led to fourth Anglo-Mysore war. The war was brief but decisive. Seringapatam was taken by assault on May 4, 1799. Tipu Sultan himself was killed in action and his son surrendered. A chief of the old Hindu dynasty Wodeyars were made King of Mysore. Purnia, Tipu’s Brahmin minister, was made the de facto ruler. The new Mysore state entered into a subsidiary treaty (July 1799) with the British which reduced it to the position of a dependency of the Company. Thus the English had to fight four wars with Mysore in order to reduce it to complete subjection. This task was made easy by:
  • the resources of the Company,
  • the narrow policy of the Marathas and the Nizam who became the allies of the Company,
• Tipu Sultan was also responsible for driving the Indian powers to the arms of the Company. His military policy was also defective. He depended too much on defensive strategy and neglected cavalry which had rendered signal service in the campaign of his father.
• Tipu Sultan was a great ruler who took great pains to improve the prosperity of his dominion. He was a good learner. He used to read books of diverse fields. His personal library contained books on such diverse subjects as religion, history, military science, medicine, and mathematics.

Administration

• Like his father, Tipu Sultan was a good administrator. He managed his subjects well. He was religiously tolerant and had a distinguishing character. He was a great innovator.
• He was one who believed in philosophy of change with the times. This was symbolised with the introduction of a new calendar, a new system of coinage, and a new scales of weights and measures.

Foreign Relations

• Tipu Sultan was a man of international exposure. He used to be aware of the happening of the world. He was well aware of the French revolution and was an admirer of French revolution. He planted a ‘Tree of Liberty’ at Srirangapatnam and he was also in favour of forming laws which will be according to the principles of Republic.
• Jacobin club of Mysore was a revolutionary organisation formed by French in Mysore. Tipu Sultan became a member of a Jacobin Club. He called himself citizen Tippo. He also had trade relation with many countries. Under Tipu Sultan Mysore became a formidable power. He sent and received envoys especially from France and Turkey.

Military Organisation

• Because of warring nature of Indian states, they had to be prepared for war any time. Defence was the only option. So a person who could manage the military well was required. Father of Tipu Sultan Hyder Ali was himself a Military officer and had managed the security of Mysore in the best possible way.
• Like his father Tipu was also a capable ruler and military organiser. This is evident from the fact that during those days of general indiscipline among Indian armies, his troops remained disciplined and loyal to him to the last. His infantry was armed with muskets and bayonets which were manufactured in Mysore. So he also emphasised the modernisation of the arsenal. He used to keep various types of guns which were difficult to be recognised. In order to protect the Malabar Coast from attacks he made an effort to build a modern navy after 1796. He had fleet of boats in his navy.

Agriculture

• Agriculture was the major sector for economy in those days. It was a major source of revenue for kingdom. Every ruler had to frame such policies which would ensure the well-being of the farmers and also will earn a good amount of revenue for the kingdom. Tipu Sultan was well aware of all this. He made certain changes in Agricultural sector.
• He tried to do away with the custom of giving jagirs because this had led to subjugation of farmers and also the loss of revenue because of corruption by intermediaries. Second change was that he increased the revenue to increase the state income. Third change was that he made an attemp to reduce the hereditary possessions of the poligars in order to bring the land under the control of state.
• Though his land revenue was as high as that of other contemporary rulers – it ranged up to 1/3rd of the gross produce. He checked the collection of illegal cesses, and he was liberal in granting remissions. This led to reduction in pilferage and also reduced the corruption to a great extent.
• Some English historians have said that the peasants of Mysore were happier in the regime of Tipu and Haider Ali than that compared with territory which was controlled by the English Company. This was all because of policies of Tipu Sultan.

Religion

• Tipu Sultan was also tolerant towards other religions like his father. He participated in the religious functions and respected the religious freedom of the majority Hindu population. He never tried to impose his religion on his subjects. His religious toleration is evident from the fact that he gave money for the construction of goddess Sharda idol in the Shringeri Temple. This famous temple was situated barely 100 yards from his palace. Also he used to give gifts to several other temples on regular basis.
• But some historians differ from this view and say that Tipu’s religious freedom was limited only within his territory. He has been accused of conversions in territory of Malabar. He did not respect the people of other religion from different kingdom.

Travancore

Details

• After the Chera Empire got dissolved in 1100 A.D. the region was under the rule of many kingdoms. But the empire rose to prominence during the rule of King Marthanda Varma. He was a king of Venad from 1729.
• He used all means to unify many small kingdoms. During his time the empire was named Thiruvithamcode or Travancore. Combining rare foresight and indomitable courage, the king did works in various fields.

Administration

• In order to organise the state it was required to curb the anarchy prevailing in the region. This was mainly because after the decline of Chera and collapse of Mughal rule, many feudatories established their rule in smaller parts.
• They kept on warring amongst themselves over pity issues. Marthanda varma was a good visionary and a well equipped administrator. He understood the problems and then started taking steps to organise the Kingdom. For this, firstly he subdued the feudatories who were the major cause of anarchy. Then he organised the region as per the eighteenth century and established a disciplined Army on the western model, to protect the external boundaries of the state.

Foreign Policy

• Marthanda Varma was a realist by nature. He had an offensive approach towards foreign policy. He used his army to conquer Quilon and Elayadam. This helped him in enlarging the territory of Travancore.
• After defeating a union of feudal lords and establishing internal peace, he expanded the kingdom of Venad through a series of military campaigns from Kanyakumari in the south to the borders of Kochi in the north during his 29-year rule. This led to the Travancore-Dutch War (1739-1753) between the Dutch East India Company who had been allied to some of these kingdoms and Travancore. In 1741, Travancore won the Battle of Colachel against the Dutch East India Company, resulting in the complete removal of Dutch power from the region.

Economy

• Marthanda Varma undertook many irrigation works and encouraged trade and commerce. He reorganised the commercial sector and monopolised the spice trade. He built roads for enhancing the business climate of the state. Under his rule water sport from Varkala, Thiruvananthpuram and Cochin were started.
• Pallikondan dam, Chattuputhoor dam, Sabari dam, Kumari dam and Chozhanthitta dam, all on the river Pazhaya in the vicinity of Nagercoil, were constructed by him and are still operational. Because of his efforts to boost irrigation the paddy cultivation doubled in the region.

Cultural Developments

• Marthanda Varma renovated Padmanabhapuram Palace, built Krishnapuram Palace near Alappuzha. Padmanabhaswamy temple was renovated and Marthanda Varma also paid tribute to various temples.
• The 18th century witnessed a remarkable revival of language and literature. Apart from Malayalam literature, Sanskrit was liberally patronised and Trivandrum, the capital of Travancore, became a famous centre of culture. Rama Varma, successor of Marthanda Varma, were themselves a great scholar and being conversant with English language, took keen interest in European affairs.
• By 1763 almost all the small states of Kerala had been either absorbed or subordinated by the big three states – Cochin, Travancore and Calicut.
• Haider Ali of Mysore began his invasion in 1766 and conquered Northern part of Kerala till Cochin, including territories of Zamorin of Calicut.

Raja Jai Singh of Ambar (1699-1743 AD)

Details

• He was the most outstanding Rajput ruler of the eighteenth century. He was a great reformer and made Jaipur a veritable museum of intellectual activities. He founded the city of Jaipur on strict architectural principle. Himself a great astronomer, he erected observatories with sophisticated instruments at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura. He drew up a set of tables to enable people to make astronomical observations.
• He prompted the translation of Euclid’s ‘Elements of Geometry’ into Sanskrit as also several works on trigonometry and Napier’s work on logarithmic.

Decline of the Rajput Power

• It is an irony of fate that the Rajputs who were a paragon of rare bravery, chivalry, courage and valour lost to the Turk invaders who came from barren, destitute and distant lands. There are several reasons assigned to this phenomenon. But broadly they can be grouped under the following seven heads: political, military, religious, social, geographical, administrative and economic causes. 

Causes of Decline

Political Causes

• Lack of a powerful central authority: There was no powerful central authority in India that could have offered strong resistance to the invaders as the Magadha Empire did during Alexander’s invasion. India at that time was divided into a number of independent Rajput states.
• Disunity among the Rajput rulers: There were tough mutual fights among Rajputs states, particularly among the Chauhans and the Rathors, the Chandelas and the Chalukyas and the Pratiharas, Palas and the Rashtrakutas.
• Lack of political insight: Even a series of Muslim invasions did not produce a single Rajput ruler with political insight to visualize as to what would happen to all of them, one by one, if the foreign inroads were not faced and checked unitedly.
• Neglect of the frontiers: The Rajput rulers failed to evolve any frontier policy and could not forget their internal feuds and rise above personal prejudices
  to save the frontier states being crushed under the foreign soldiers.
• Feudalism: The army of a Rajput ruler was constituted by collecting the armies of the feudal chiefs. The soldiers demonstrated more loyalty to their feudal chief
  than to the ruler. Feudal system led to the weakening of the power of the king.

Military Causes

• Lack of appropriate military strategy: The Rajput army advanced with all the wings together-the right, the centre and the left. The Turks used a special strategy with their two units-one advanced guard and other the reserve. The advance guard was meant to test their strength and to find out the weak areas. The reserve was thrown into the battle fray after the Rajput had exhausted their resources.
• Lack of offensive: The Rajputs mostly fought defensive battles with the foreign invaders and this was not the appropriate way of winning a battle.
• Outdated weapons and war strategies: The Rajput did not try to find out the latest techniques and weapons used in foreign lands.
• Swordsmen versus archers: The Turkish archers shooting arrows from their horses were more than a match for the Rajput soldiers with their swords which could become effective only if they could reach close to the enemy.
• Elephants versus horses: The Rajput depended to a considerable extent upon the elephants. The elephants were easily struck with fear with the swiftness of the horses’ movements and the war cries. They ran helterskelter spreading fear and disorder in their own camp. The strength of the Turks lay in their efficient cavalry.
• Lack of military leadership: Military leadership is quite different from bravery and chivalry. The Rajput rulers and their commanders did not have the requisite
  capacity to infuse zeal in their armies. On the other hands, the Turk invaders could easily arouse the battle cry ‘to do or die’.
• Only Rajput’s in the army: Only Rajput’s had the duty to fight. Other classes were indifferent. Thus too much dependence on the Rajput’s was one of the weaknesses of the military organisation.

Religious Causes

• Ghazi spirit of the Muslim army: A Ghazi is one who gives his life in defence of Islam. For the Muslim soldiers, the fight against the Rajputs i.e. the Hindus, was a ‘Jihad’ (Holy war) – a crusade to protect as well as to spread their religion. The soldiers were thoroughly convinced that if they died for their religion they would go to paradise. If they won, they would get all the pleasures of the world, besides being the protectors of their religion.
• No unitary ideology of the Hindus: Hinduism had no unified ideology to bind them together to the extent the Muslims had.
• Impact of Buddhist religion: The Buddhist concept of Ahimsa did a great harm to the martial spirit of the Hindus. It made the Hindus timid and peace-loving.

Social Causes

• Decaying society: The caste system had divided the Hindu society and injected the venom of hatred, humiliation, inequality, prejudices and untouchability. On the contrary, Islam had infused a spirit of brotherhood.
• Superstition of the Hindus: Superstition acted like a double-edged sword towards the fall of Hindu India. While the Muslims believed that victory was bound to come to them, the Hindus believed that they were bound, to be conquered by the Muslims in ‘Kaliyug’, such a superstition demoralized and discouraged the Hindus. Slave system of the Muslim rulers: The slaves maintained by the Muslim rulers were very faithful to their masters. They were provided adequate opportunities to hold high offices according to their ability . They were always ready to die for their masters.

Administrative Factors

• The Rajput rulers did not set up an efficient spy system to be adequately acquainted themselves with the overall position of their adversaries. It is also very unfortunate that sometimes Rajput officials proved treacherous as they let out some of the military secrets to the enemy.

Geographical Factors

• Some historians have suggested that the hot climate of India sapped the strength and vigour of the Indian soldiers. 
• The Muslim soldiers came from cold regions and were habitually hardy and sturdy. They were not bothered by the Indian heat as they were used to face climatic harshness. 
• Heat or cold, did not matter to them as they were there to conquer and that was the only thing that mattered to them. The Muslim rulers had excellent recruiting grounds in lands beyond the Afghan hills. From there they could constantly bring new recruits to fight against the Hindus.

Economic Factors

• Soldiers of the Turk invaders were attracted by the wealth of India. They, therefore, fought with full zeal. As already stated, religious fanaticism was also there. Thus the two factors combined together to infuse vigour in them. The wealth of the temples had a great attraction for the Muslim invaders. These temples however, were not properly protected. It, therefore, became easy for the invaders to plunder these places and this demoralised the people.

Nadir Shah

• Nadir Quli was boin in 1688 in a Turkoman family of Khorasan. He had a stormy career in his youth. He proved the Saviour of Persia against Afghan domination.
• The Afghans under their leader Mahmud had snatched Kandhar from the Persians and later (1722) attacked and captured Isfahan, the capital of Persia.
• Nadir Kuli took upon himself the task of liberating his adopted country from the rule of the Afghans. In 1727 Nadir occupied Nishapur and turned out the Afghans from that region. Nadir acknowledged the overlordship of the Safawid Prince Shah Tahmasp and preferred to work as his Commander-in-Chief.
• Before long the whole of Persia was liberated from Afghan rule. The grateful Shah shared his kingdom with Nadir Kuli and allowed him to rule over half of Persia in full sovereign rights including the right to issue coins in his name.
• In 1736 the last of the Safawid ruler died and Nadir became the ruler of the whole of Persia and assumed the title of Nadir Shah (Nader Shah Afshar).

Afsharid Dynasty

• The Afsharid dynasty was an Iranian dynasty that ruled Iran (Persia) in the mid-eighteenth century, descended from the Turkoman Afshar clan in Iran’s north-eastern region of Khorasan.
• The dynasty was established in 1736 by Nadir Shah (Nader Shah Afshar), a superb military leader who toppled the last member of the Safavid dynasty and proclaimed himself Shah of Iran.
• Iran attained its largest breadth since the Sasanian Empire during Nader’s rule. It ruled over modern-day Iran, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan Republic, sections of the North Caucasus (Dagestan), Afghanistan, Bahrain, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Pakistan, as well as parts of Iraq, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman at its peak.
• Following his death, the majority of his empire was partitioned among the Zands, Durranis, Georgians, and Caucasian khanates, with Afsharid sovereignty limited to a tiny provincial kingdom in Khorasan.
• Finally, in 1796, Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar overthrew the Afsharid dynasty, establishing a new native Iranian kingdom and restoring Iranian suzerainty over several of the aforementioned provinces.

About Invasion of Nadir Shah

• Nadir Shah was greatly ambitious and sought extension of his dominions at the expense of his neighbouring countries. His first target was Kandhar. So long as Kandhar was not conquered it would remain a menance to the safety of Persia and constantly disturb the peace and prosperity of Khorasan. Moreover, without the conquest of Kandhar the full heritage of the Safawids could not be said to have come into his possession.
• To isolate the Afghan rulers of Kandhar, Nadir Shah entered into correspondence with Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah soliciting that Afghan fugitives might not find shelter in Kabul.
• Muhammad Shah gave assurances to Nadir’s envoy about that. When, however, Nadir Shah conquered Kandhar in March 1738, a number of Afghan fugitives took shelter at Kabul and Ghazni. Under Nadir’s strict instructions his soldiers did not violate Mughal territory and refrained from pursuing the Afghan fugitives in Kabul and Ghazni. Notwithstanding the breach of promiseson the part of the Mughal government, Nadir had despatched in 1737 an imperative emissary— third of its kind—towards Delhi. Nadir’s emissary was attacked and cut off at Jalalabad by the Mughal soldiers.
• The indifference with which the Mughal emperor treated the envoys of Nadir Shah and the cruel treatment meted out to the last emissary was made an excuse by Nadir Shah to invade India. Besides, the Mughal emperor had insulted Nadir Shah by discontinuing the practice of exchange of ambassadors with the Persian court when Nadir ascended the throne.
• However, the real causes of Nadir Shah’s invasion of India are to be found in the ambition of Nadir Shah on the one hand and the apparent weakness of the Mughal Empire on the other.
  • Nadir had heard about the fabulous wealth of India and his greed was excited. To top all, Nadir had received definite information about the wretched condition of the Mughal administration and the internal dissensions which had sapped its vitality, which belief of his was fortified by the number of letters of goodwill and invitation he had received from Indian Amirs soliciting him to invade India.
• Nadir Shah entered Ghazni on 11 June 1738 and captured Kabul on 29 June. Nadir Shah, who had created for himself a reputation as a merciful enemy and liberal master, held out inducements to deserters. Nasir Khan, the Mughal governor of Kabul, surrendered without resistance and was pardoned and restored to the viceroyalty of Kabul and Peshawar on profession of loyalty to his new master.
• Crossing the Indus at Attock, Nadir easily defeated the governor of Lahore and treated him kindly and the latter also like Nasir Khan joined the conqueror’s train on a rapid march towards Delhi.

The Battle of Karnal, 24 February 1739

• Nadir’s rapid advance towards Delhi alarmed the Mughal emperor. The emperor gathered an army of 80,000 and accompanied by the Nizam-ul-Mulk, Qamar-ud-Din and Khan-i-Dauran marched from the capital to confront the invader. Saadat Khan joined them soon after.
• The weakness of the Mughal side was soon clear from the fact that it had no knowledge of the enemy’s whereabouts until Nadir’s advance-guard attacked the baggage train of Saadat Khan. Further, there was neither any general plan of action nor an agreed leader.
• The battle of Karnal lasted only three hours. Khan-i-Dauran fell fighting in the battlefield while Saadat Khan was taken prisoner by Nadir Shah.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk played the role of the peace-maker. It was agreed that Nadir would get 50 lakhs of rupees, 20 lakhs immediately and 30 lakhs in three equal instalments of 10 lakhs each payable at Lahore, Attock and Kabul respectively.
• The Emperor was so pleased with the services of Nizam-ul-Mulk that he conferred on him the office of the Mir Bakhsi which had fallen vacant on the death of Khan-i-Dauran.

Nadir’s March to Delhi.

• The selfishness and mutual rivalries of the Mughal nobles played havoc at this stage. Saadat Khan, who had coveted the office of the Mir Bakhshi, was so greatly disappointed at the conferment of the post on the Nizam that he sought a meeting with Nadir and told him that he could easily secure 20 crores of rupees only if he would proceed to Delhi.
• Nadir had already obtained sufficient information about the state of the Mughal politics from the Nizam. During his meeting with the Nizam earlier, the Persian invader had asked him why in spite of the presence of brave men like him the Marathas had captured large territories of the empire. The Nizam had plainly told him that the court factions had created great confusion and that was why he had himself gone away to the Deccan in disgust.
• Now Nadir had himself tested the truth of the Nizam’s observations. Nadir Shah now decided to march to Delhi where he reached on 20 March 1739. At Delhi the khutba (emblem of sovereignty) was read for Nadir and coins were struck in his name. The Mughal Empire had ended, the Persian Empire had begun.
• On 22 March a rumour spread in Delhi that Nadir had suddenly died. There was a popular rising in the city in which 700 of Nadir’s soldiers were killed. Thereupon, Nadir gave an order for general massacre. It has been estimated that about 30,000 persons were slaughtered. On the solicitation of Muhammad Shah, Nadir ordered his men to stop the massacre.

Return of Nadir Shah

• Nadir Shah remained in Delhi for about two months. He tried to collect the maximum booty from Delhi. He laid all the nobles and even the general population under contribution. Saadat Khan, the villain of the peace, was threatened with corporal punishment if he did not collect for the invader an amount of 20 crores. Helpless, Saadat Khan took poison and ended his life.
• Saadat Khan’s successor, Safdar Jang paid two crore rupees as his part of the contribution. The booty collected by Nadir amounted to 30 crores of rupees in cash besides jewels, gold and silver plates, besides “100 elephants, 7,000 horses, 10,000 camels, 100 eunuchs, 130 writers, 200 smiths, 300 masons and builders, 100 stone-cutters and 200 carpenters”. Above all, the invader carried with him the ‘Peacock Throne’ of Shah jahan which alone had cost a crore of rupees.
• The Mughal emperor was also compelled to give a royal princess in marriage to Nadir’s son, Nasir Allah Mirza. Muhammad Shah also surrendered to Nadir Shah the Mughal provinces west of the river
  Indus including Kashmir and Sind. The subah of Thatta and the ports subordinate thereto were also
  surrendered to the invader. Besides, the Governor of the Panjab agreed to pay to Nadir a sum of rupees 20 lakhs per annum “to remove the reason for any Persian garrison being left east of the Indus”.
• Nadir on his part declared Muhammad Shah as Emperor of the Mughal Empire once again
  with the right to issue coins and have the khutba read in his name. Before leaving Delhi, Nadir also
  gave much advice to Muhammad Shah and exhorted his subjects to obey him. He also promised
  military support to the Mughal emperor in time of need.

Peacock Throne

• The Peacock Throne was a magnificent jewelled throne that served as the seat of the Mughal Empires in India.
• It was commissioned by Emperor Shah Jahan in the early 17th century and was housed in the Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audiences, or Ministers’ Room) of Delhi’s Red Fort. It was called after a peacock because two peacocks are seen dancing at its back.
• On the Throne was inscribed in emerald a phrase celebrating Shah Jahan’s achievements. It was made with an estimated 116 emeralds, 108 rubies, and other rare diamonds, sapphires, and pearls.
• There were silver stairs leading up to a platform 6 ft by 4 ft. The platform was raised about 25 inches above the ground on four gold-encased feet.
• Nadir Shah was slain by his own bodyguards in 1747, and Persia sank into turmoil. In the pandemonium that erupted thieves looted the palace and demolished the Peacock Throne.

Ahmad Shah Abdali

About

• Abdali was born in Multan (then Mughal Empire, now Pakistan) in 1722 to Mohammad Zaman Khan, governor of Herat and leader of the Abdali clan.
• Durrani’s forebears were Sadozais, while his mother was Alakozai.
• The Abdali soldiers led by Zulfiqar surrendered to Nader Shah Afshar, the emerging new ruler of Persia, in June 1729. However, they soon started a rebellion and took over Herat and Mashhad.
• He defeated Ibrahim Khan, a military leader, and Nader Shah’s brother, in July 1730.
• Since roughly 1729, Nader Shah had been enrolling the Abdalis in his army. Durrani and his brother Zulfiqar were liberated and given prominent positions in Nader Shah’s government after the conquest of Kandahar in 1738.
• Durrani continued as Nader Shah’s personal attendant, while Zulfiqar was appointed Governor of Mazandaran.
• Durrani distinguished himself in Nader Shah’s service, rising from the rank of a personal attendant (yaswal) to head the Abdali Regiment, a cavalry of 4,000 troops and commanders.
• During Nader Shah’s invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1738, the Abdali Regiment formed part of his troops.

Durrani Empire

About

• The Durrani Kingdom, also known as the Sadozai Kingdom and the Afghan Empire, was a Central Asian, Middle Eastern, and South Asian empire created and constructed by Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• The empire reigned over modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as areas of northeastern and southeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northern India at its peak.
• The Durrani Empire was the strongest Muslim empire of the second part of the eighteenth century, second only to the Ottoman Empire.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali unified the many Pashtun tribes and established the Durrani Empire with his Baloch allies, which comprised modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as sections of northeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northwestern India, including the Kashmir area, at its zenith.
• During the early half of the nineteenth century, the Durranis were succeeded by the Barakzai dynasty.
• Ahmad Shah and his descendants descended from the Durrani Popalzai line (formerly known as the Abdalis), making them the second Pashtun kings of Kandahar after the Hotak dynasty.
• The Durranis rose to prominence in the second part of the 18th century, owing mostly to the leadership of Ahmad Shah Durrani.

Ahmed Shah Abdali – Indian Invasion

About

• Between 1748 and 1767, Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India eight times.
• Following Nadir Shah’s demise, Ahmad Shah Durrani ascended to the Afghan throne and began pillaging wealth from neighbouring territories.
  • He also issued coins bearing his name. Soon after he seized Kabul and founded the modern kingdom of Afghanistan. He enlisted a large army of 50,000. As the rightful successor of Nadir, he laid claim to Western Panjab.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali’s first invasion of India in 1748 ended in a fiasco. Abdali was not a man to be easily baulked. Early in 1749 he again crossed the frontier and defeated Muin-ul-Mulk, the Governor of the Panjab. However, he was induced to return on a promise by Muin-ul-Mulk of an annual remittance of fourteen thousand rupees.
• As he did not get regularly the promised tribute, Abdali invaded India the third time in 1752. Fearing a repetition of Nadir’s outrages, the Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah appeased Abdali by surrender of the Panjab and Sindh. To restore order in the Panjab which had been a prey to anarchyafter the death of Muin-ul-Mulk, in November 1753 Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk appointed Adina beg Khan as Governor of the Panjab.
• This was, however, interpreted as interference in the affairs of the Panjab by Abdali who crossed into Indian territory for the fourth time in November 1756. In January 1757 the invader entered Delhi and plundered as far as Mathura and Agra. In 1757, Abdali seized Delhi and left an Afghan caretaker to keep an eye on the Mughal emperor.
  • Before his return Abdali recognised Alamgir II as the emperor, Imad-ul-Daula as the Wazir and the Rohilla chief Najib-ud-Daula as his personal “supreme agent” and as Mir Bakhshi of the empire.
• In March 1758 Raghunath Rao appeared at Delhi, expelled Najib from the capital and later overran the Panjab, appointing Adina Beg as governor of the Panjab on behalf of the Peshwa. Abdali returned to India in 1759 to avenge on the Marathas.
  • The third battle of Panipat was fought on 14 January 1761, resulting in the total defeat of the Marathas.
  • Before leaving Delhi on 20 March 1761 Abdali named Shah Alam II as emperor, Imad-ul-Mulk as Wazir and Najib-ud-Daula as Mir Bakhshi.
• The last of Abdali’s invasions came in 1767. Ahmad Shah Abdali’s invasions hastened the downfall of the Mughal Empire. The frequency of his invasions further exposed the rottenness of the Mughal Empire and created anarchy and contusion all round.
• So shallow was the reality of the Mughal Empire that the new Emperor Shah Alam II was not allowed to enter Delhi for twelve years and was escorted to his throne in 1772 only by the Marathas. The Rohilla leaders Najib-ud-Daula and later his son Zabita Khan and grandson Ghulam Qadir exercised undisputed power at Delhi.
• On 30July 1788 Ghulam Qadir took possession of the royal palace and deposed Shah Alam and later blinded him completely (10 August 1788). It was the Maratha leader Mahadaji Sindhia who recovered Delhi for the emperor once again in October 1788.
• In 1803 the English captured the imperial city and Shah Alam II became a pensioner of the East India Company.

Third Battle of Panipat

• The battle took place at Panipat (in Haryana) on 14 January 1761, between the invading Afghan forces and the Maratha forces.
• The Afghans were led by their king Ahmed Shah Durrani, who got help from the Rohilla Afghans of the Doab and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh. On the other hand, the Marathas failed to get the support of the Sikhs or the Jats or the Rajputs.
  • The commander-in-chief of the Maratha camp was Sadashivrao Bhau. Other important commanders in the Maratha side were Vishwasrao (the Peshwa Balaji Bajirao’s son), Malharrao Holkar and Mahadji Shinde.
• The fight is regarded as one of the largest fought in the 18th century, with the most casualties known in a single day in a typical formation combat between two armies.
• With no supplies and dying warriors, the Maratha leaders pleaded with their commander, Sadashiv Rao Bhau, to let them die in combat rather than starve to death.
• The Marathas left their camp to march towards the Afghan camp in a desperate bid to break the siege.
• Over 125,000 men were involved in the conflict, which lasted many days. Prolonged clashes erupted, with both forces suffering losses and gaining ground.
• After defeating many Maratha flanks, the armies headed by Ahmad Shah Durrani emerged triumphant.
• The magnitude of both sides’ casualties is estimated to be between 60,000–70,000 dead in battle, with the number of injured and captives taken varying greatly. The day following the fight, around 40,000 Maratha captives were killed in cold blood.
• Durrani returned to his capital after the war and did not stay in India. He ordered the chiefs in India, which included Robert Clive of the East India Company to recognise the Mughal Shah Alam II as the Emperor.
• The fight halted future Maratha advances in the north and destabilised their territory for almost ten years.
• In 1771, ten years after Panipat, Peshwa Madhavrao led a huge Maratha force into North India in an attempt to re-establish Maratha dominance in the region.
• Punish obstinate powers that had either joined with the Afghans, like as the Rohillas, or had shrugged from Maratha dominance following Panipat.
• This campaign’s triumph might be viewed as the final chapter in the protracted narrative of Panipat.

Social and Economic Conditions in 18th Century

Details

Social Stratification

• At the apex of the social order was the emperor closely followed by the nobility which despite hard times led a life of luxury and extravagance with great weakness for wine, women and music.
• At the lowest rung of the ladder was the preponderant majority of the poor agriculturist and artisan in the village.
• In the middle came the ‘small and frugal’ middle class comprising small merchants, shopkeepers, lower cadre of employees, town artisans etc.
• Paucity of contemporary evidence and disparities in incomes and prices in different regions of the country makes any comparison of standard of living a difficult exercise.
• The institution of caste stands out a striking feature of Hindu society of the time. Caste rules prevailed in matters of marriage, dress, diet and even professions.
  • However, economic pressures and administrative innovations introduced by the East India Company compelled some to look beyond their ancestral professions.
• There was, of course, no uniformity of culture and social patterns all over the country. Nor did all Hindus and all Muslims form two distinct societies. People were divided by religion, region, tribe, language, and caste.
• Moreover, the social life and culture of the upper classes, who formed a tiny minority of the total population, was in many respects different from the life and culture of the lower classes.

Place of Women in Society

• Women were given a place of respect in home and society but not of equality as we understand the term today Hindu society being mainly patriarchal (except in the Malabar and some backward areas), the will of the male head of the family usually prevailed.
• Though examples can be cited of Hindu and Muslim women having played significant roles in polities, administration and scholastic fields, the common woman was denied right place in society.
• Purdah system was common among both the Hindu and Muslim women though women of poor families out on work for livelihood could not observe it.
• Child marriages were common among both girls and boys though consummation usually took place after they attained the age of maturity. Dowry system was prevalent among the upper classes.
• Polygamy was common among ruling princes, big zamindars and men of better means though the common man contented himself with one wife. Polygamy in shocking proportions prevailed among the kulin families in Uttar Pradesh and Bengal.
• Remarriage of widows was generally looked down upon though it prevailed in some places. Surprisingly the Peshwas imposed a tax called patdam on remarriage of widows.
• The evil practice of Sati (of Hindu widows burning themselves on the funeral pyres of their husbands) mostly prevailed in Bengal, Central India and Rajputana among some upper castes. The Peshwas discouraged sati in their dominion with limited success.

Slavery

• Another social evil was the prevalence of slavery. Broadly speaking, slaves could be classed into two categories—the domestic slaves and the serfs tied to the land.
• In the latter category the serfs were transferred with the sale of land to new masters. European travellers and administrators have testified to the widespread prevalence of slavery in India.
• Economic distress, famines, natural calamities, extreme poverty compelled some to sell their children for a price. The Rajputs, Khatris and Kayasthas usually kept slave women for domestic work.
• However, slaves in India were treated better than their counterparts in America and Europe. Slaves were usually treated as hereditary servants of the family than as menials; they were allowed to marry among themselves and the main offsprings of such marriages were considered free citizens.
• Slavery and slave trade touched new dimensions with the coming of Europeans in India particularly the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English.
  • There is mention of a court-house at Calcutta in 1752 which regularly purchased and registered slaves charging a registration fee of Rs. 4 for each entry.
  • The European companies purchased slaves at a price ranging between
    • Rs. 5 to Rs. 15 for a girl of 10 years,
    • Rs. 12 to Rs. 20 for a boy of 16 and
    • Rs. 15 to Rs. 20 for a full grown adult slave from the markets of Bengal, Assam and Bihar, and carried them to European and American markets for sale.
• There are reports of Europeans at Surat, Madras and Calcutta purchasing Abyssinian slaves and employing them for domestic work.
• Traffic in slaves was abolished by a proclamation issued in 1789. However, rural slavery shorn of many of its classical crudities continues in India even today.

Education

• The love of learning has always exercised a powerful influence on both the Hindu and the Muslim mind. However, the idea of Indian education was culture and not literacy. Vocational education according to one’s vama or family tradition assured specialization.
  • Both Hindu and Muslim systems of education linked learning and religion.
• Centres of higher education in Sanskrit literature were called chatuspathis or Tols in Bengal and Bihar. Nadia, Kasi (Benares),Tirhut (Mithila) and Utkala (Orissa) were reputed centres for Sanskrit education.
  • The French traveller Bernier described ‘Kasi as the Athens of India’, and aspirants for higher Sanskrit education flocked to its numerous institutions.
• Institutions for learning of higher education in Persian and Arabic were called Madrasahs. Persian being the court language was learnt both by the Muslims and the Hindus.
  • Azimabad (Patna) was a reputed centre of Persian education in eastern India.
  • Those interested in the study of Koran and Muslim theology had to acquire proficiency in Arabic.
• Elementary education was fairly widespread. The Hindu elementary schools were called pathshalas and Muslim elementary schools were popularly known as maktabs. These school, were not unusually attached to temples and mosques.
• The students were given instruction in the three R’s of reading, writing and arithmetic. Moral instruction with emphasis on truth and honesty, obedience to parents and faith in one’s religion, found a place in the school curriculum.
• Though education was mainly popular with the higher castes, there were cases of children of lower castes attending schools. Female education received scant attention.

Arts and Literature

• In the fields of arts and literature the absence of patronage at Delhi led to flight of talent to newly-established state capitals like Hyderabad, Lucknow, Murshidabad, Jaipur etc.
• Asaf-ud-Daula built the Great Imambara (a building for celebration of Muharram festival) at Lucknow in 1784; the absence of any pillars or support makes it architecturally interesting.
• Swai Jai Singh (1686-1743) built the famous pink city of Jaipur and five astronomical observatories in India including one at Jaipur, another at New Delhi and a third at Benares.
• At Amritsar Maharaja Ranjit Singh renovated the Sikh shrine decorating the lower half with marble and the entire upper portion was inlaid with copper surmounted with a thin plate of gold and gave it its modem name of the Golden Temple.
• The palace of Suraj Mai at Dig (the capital of Bharatpur) state was planned to rival in munificence the imperial palaces at Agra; work on its construction was begun in 1725 but the construction was left unfinished.
• Vernacular languages like Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Panjabi, Marathi, Telugu and Tamil greatly developed. It was during the 18th century that the Christian missionaries set up printing presses in India and brought out vernacular editions of the Bible.
  • Ziegenbelg, a Danish missionary composed a Tamil grammar and published a Tamil version of the Bible. Even a Tamil dictionary was compiled by these missionaries.
  • In Bengal, the Baptist missionaries (Carey, Ward and Marshman) set up a printing press at Serampur and published a Bengali version of the Bible.

Economic Conditions

• In the beginning of the 18th century the basic unit of Indian economy was still the self-sufficient and self-governing village community which produced almost all for its local needs. Its only link with the state was the payment of land revenue.
• While rulers and dynasties changed ceaselessly, the village communities carried on as usual. It was this ‘unchangeableness of Asiatic societies’ that attracted the attention of European observers and drew the cryptic remark that “they lasted when nothing else seemed to last”.
  • These village communities though factors in economic and social stability were also responsible for economic stagnation.
• Town handicrafts in India had reached a high level of development and attracted world-wide markets.
  • The cotton products of Dacca, Ahmedabad and Masulipatam,
  • the silk fabrics of Murshidabad, Agra, Lahore and Gujarat,
  • the fine woollen shawls and carpets of Kashmir, Lahore and Agra,
  • the gold and silver jewellery, metal work, metal utensils, arms, shields found markets both in India and abroad.
• The large-scale domestic and foreign trade brought into existence the merchant-capitalist and the development of the banking system.
  • The emergence of Jagat Seths, Nagar Seths in northern India and the Chetties in the south with their elaborate banking houses and extensive use of hundies and other banking practices gave great fillip to trade and commerce.
• These developments in the Indian economy in the 17th and 18th centuries gave some indications that some pre-conditions for a rapid growth of capitalism did exist.
  • However, certain constraints like the existence of feudal classes (who wasted on lavish display the surplus they appropriated from the peasantry) the law of escheat (by which the property of the deceased noble was taken away by the state), the absence of correct saving habits and the use of such savings for productive purposes and, above all, the absence of politcal stability and a forward-looking state – all ill-boded for economic development on modem lines.
• The presence of European trading companies in the 18th century with deep politico-economic interests added to the prevailing confusion and economic stagnation.’

Trade

• Even though the Indian villages were largely self-sufficient and imported little from outside and the means of communication were backward, extensive trade within the country and between India and other countries of Asia and Europe was earned on under the Mughals.
• India imported − pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits, and rose water from the Persian Gulf region; coffee, gold, drugs, and honey from Arabia; tea, sugar, porcelain, and silk from China;
• India’s most important article of export was cotton textiles, which were famous all over the world for their excellence and were in demand everywhere. India also exported raw silk and silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpetre, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper and other spices, precious stones, and drugs.
• Constant warfare and disruption of law and order, in many areas during the 18th century, banned the country’s internal trade and disrupted its foreign trade to some extent and in some directions.
• The decline of internal and foreign trade also hit the industries hard in some parts of the country. Nevertheless, some industries in other parts of the country gained as a result of expansion in trade with Europe due to the activities of the European trading companies.

Important Changes 

Details

European Feudal Crisis (14th Century)

• Feudalism had been in existence for about a thousand years and was the dominant social system in medieval Europe. Under this system, the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants (serfs) had to live on their lords land and give him homage, labour, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange for military protection.
• Hence, the whole of feudal society was based on ties of dependence. The strong needed the weak as dependents to serve them. The economy and society was primarily land-based. The bottom of the social hierarchy consisted of peasants or serfs who were bound to serve their masters or lords. These lords in turn served their overlords. The Christian church with its clergy was extremely powerful in the feudal society.
• By the 14th century, limits to growth of feudal society had been reached and the feudal society of Europe was in a crisis. Technology and resources could not keep pace with the rise in population.
  • Accordingly, when Black Death (plague) spread from 1348 onwards, it wiped out people in large numbers, resulting in abandoning of cultivable land and decline in agricultural production.
  • Consequently, the income of the feudal lords also declined and they reacted by attempting a tightening of their feudal control over the peasants. The peasants resisted and the 14th and 15th centuries were marked by a series of peasant rebellions all over Europe.
• The crisis was particularly intense in Western Europe (broadly the area west of River Elbe consisting of countries like England, France, Holland, Spain and parts of Germany and Scandinavia). Here the hold of feudal lords weakened and serfdom declined after the feudal crisis, leading to the emergence of nation-states under strong monarchs.
• On the contrary, in Eastern Europe (the region of present day Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, former USSR, etc.) the landlords succeeded in subjugating the serfs and serfdom consolidated after the crisis. As a result of this, Eastern Europe lagged behind Western Europe in trade, industry and urbanisation.
• As a result of the feudal crisis, agriculture became less profitable, whereas gains in trade and commerce increased substantially.
  • For instance, in Italy (also the birthplace of Renaissance) the merchants had been prospering immensely since the 11th to 12th century by supplying various artisanal goods and luxury items to Europe.
  • Marco Polo (1254-1324) emerged as a legendary Italian merchant who travelled to China and fascinated Europeans with his travel tales. Italy also enjoyed a geographical advantage in the Mediterranean as it was connected by both land and sea routes to the East. By 1500 AD Italy had emerged as the most prosperous state in Europe with flourishing trade centres, including Venice, Milan, Florence, Geneva and others.

Renaissance and Reformation (14th-16th Century)

• Renaissance was a period (14th- 16th century) of great social and cultural change that spread across Europe from its birthplace in Italy. Some historians consider the European Renaissance as the dawn of the Early Modern Era. The term ‘Renaissance’ is derived from the French word meaning ‘rebirth’.
• It was a period characterised by innovation, imagination and creativity. The Renaissance was also a time during which Europe’s classical past was revisited and reinvigorated. The most notable changes were experienced in the fields of art and architecture, literature, philosophy and science. Naturally, renaissance led to the questioning of orthodox beliefs and decline in the influence of the Catholic Church.
• The Reformation was a 16th-century movement for the reform of abuses in the Roman Church ending in the establishment of the Reformed and Protestant Churches. Such a development had widespread impact and Reformation emerged as a religious, political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and beliefs that would define the continent in the modern era.
• In the 14th century, Europe simultaneously entered the period of Renaissance even as its feudal society was being questioned and transformed in many ways. Europeans, particularly the rising class of traders and bankers (who constituted the new middle class of Europe), began to question the subordination of the individual to the hierarchies of the feudal age.

Geographical Exploration and Colonisation (15th Century)

Several factors contributed in the discovery of new routes and lands.

1. Italian and Arab monopoly over old trade routes 

• Soon the other countries of Europe had become eager to break the Italian monopoly over trade. But in 1453, Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks and the old Red Sea Trade route now became a state monopoly of the Islamic rulers. Other known routes were also controlled either by the Arabs or the Italians who refused to share them with emerging European nations.
• In such circumstances, the Western European states, particularly Portugal and Spain, were keen to search for new routes to India and the Spice Islands in Indonesia (then known as East Indies).

2. Rise of nation-states- The rise of nation-states under strong monarchs in the 15th century also promoted geographical explorations and most of the early European explorers were state sponsored.

3. Renaissance – Renaissance had generated a great spirit of adventure and enquiry among the people of Western Europe. Technological advancements in the form of availability of compass, gunpowder and maps also fostered the spirit of travel and exploration.

4. Spirit of ‘God, Glory and Gold’ – The explorers were also driven by the zeal to spread Christianity in new lands, return home with fabulous riches and achieve glory, popularly known as the spirit of ‘God, Glory and Gold’ {3G}.

Merchant Capitalism (16th-17th Century)

• This was clearly an age of the merchant. The geographical explorations and new colonies had opened vast opportunities for profits. The capital accumulated by the merchant class from trade profit was termed as merchant capital, hence this earliest phase in the development of capitalism is termed as merchant capitalism.
• Capitalism now began to replace feudal economy and society, giving rise to commercial revolution in Europe. The term is used to denote a series of changes which brought about tremendous expansion of market and money economy. For instance, use of currency became widespread and began replacing the age-old barter system. By 1600, almost all major cities of Europe got connected with postal service. Urbanisation picked up and cities like London, Paris and Amsterdam grew at a very fast pace.
• In addition to the merchants, capital was also being accumulated by craftsmen who showed enterprise and profited from the expanding market. In fact, Industrial growth and manufacturing in the era of merchant capitalism has also been termed as proto-industrialisation as it created conditions for the emergence of full-fledged factory-based Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.

Emergence of Organised Trade: Joint Stock Companies and Chartered Companies (17th Century)

• The 17th century saw the emergence of more sophisticated business organisations such as the Joint Stock Companies and Chartered Companies.
• A major advantage of a Joint Stock Company was that a much larger amount of capital could be raised and the high risks and costs could be shared by the shareholders.
• The Chartered companies were authorised by the government which often granted them monopoly of trade with a particular country. Several such companies were established such as the English East India Company (1600) and the French East India Company (1664).
• As a result of these developments, the 17th and 18th centuries witnessed an enormous increase in world trade.

Mercantilism (17th Century)

• In the 17th century, Europe was swayed by a set of economic ideas and practice known as mercantilism. It is an economic theory which states that trade generates wealth and is further stimulated by the accumulation of profitable balances, which a government should encourage by means of protectionism. In fact, mercantilism can be understood as the economic counterpart of the spirit of aggressive nationalism.
• Its ideas and policy prescription are summarised as follows:
  • That the volume of world trade is more or less fixed and the state should endeavour to gain as large a share of this trade as possible.
  • That gold and silver were the most desirable forms of national wealth and if a state did not possess them naturally then the chief way of obtaining them was trade.
  • That for accumulation of wealth or precious metals, the state should ensure a favourable balance of trade.
  • That the state should impose high tariffs to reduce imports of manufactured goods and lower tariffs to encourage import of cheap raw materials.
  • That the state should promote exports, especially of manufactured goods through measures like
    granting monopolies and regulating the guilds.
  • Acquisition of colonies was desirable both as a market for exports and as source of supply of raw material. For acquisition or protection of colonies, wars could be waged if required.
• Naturally, mercantilist period was a period of accumulation of capital in Europe which proved to be a vital requirement for the forthcoming Industrial Revolution in the 18th century (Much of this capital was
  extracted from the colonial trade carried out in America, Africa and India. Hence, much of the commercial supremacy of the English and the French was based upon their colonial trade during the mercantile era).

Scientific Ideas and Industrial Revolution (18th Century)

• The Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) which began in Britain was marked by the transition to new manufacturing processes. This transition included shifting from handproduction methods to machine-based production, the development of machine tools, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and the rise of the factory system.
  • Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. Britain was the first to undergo industrialisation and most of the important technological innovations were British.
• Factors that contributed to Industrial development in Britain:
  • Britain’s expanding trade
    • Britain’s overseas trade had been expanding rapidly in the past decades thanks to its growing influence and the acquisition of new colonies all over the world including Africa, West Indies, Latin America, Canada, Australia, China and India, providing unlimited opportunities for export. This raised the demand for production which necessitated new inventions.
  • Role of British government
    • The government in Britain, at the time, was under the influence of commercial and manufacturing interests and extended determined support for markets and colonies.
  • Scientific discoveries and inventions
    • The desire of British manufacturers to increase production for the expanding markets pushed them to utilise the existing technology and even to seek new inventions. Thus, it is noteworthy that it was not the scientific inventions that brought about Industrial Revolution, but the need of British manufacturers to increase production.
  • Role of scientific ideas
    • At the same time, scientific ideas contributed to the Industrial Revolution by making the society more receptive to new inventions and discoveries. Scientific outlook was immensely enriched by thinkers such as Nicholas Copernicus, Isaac Newton, Galileo, James Watt and others.
    • The Spinning Jenny was developed by James Hargreaves (1765) which increased the artisans spinning capacity by a hundred times. Now one person could do the work of eight persons. Richard Arkwrights water frame turned the jenny into a commercial proposition. Cromptons mule was a further improvement.
    • The use of power looms developed in the 1780s and this led to a rapid increase in Britain’s cotton exports which served as the main vehicle of the Industrial Revolution in Britain (and had significant impact on the industry and society of a colony like India). The invention of steam engine by James Watt (1790s) proved a boon for many industries. Use of steam power in shipping revolutionised maritime transport. Finally, the railways ushered in an altogether new era in land transport.
  • Role of increasing population
    • Population in Britain increased rapidly after 1740 and began to meet the need for the growing industries for more and cheap labour (Industrial Revolution in turn also aided population growth and it doubled in the 50 years after 1780).
  • Role of accumulated capital
    • By now, sufficient capital had accumulated in Britain for investment in the factory system. Further, this capital was now concentrated not in the hands of feudal elements who would waste it in luxurious living, but in the hands of the merchants who were keen in investment in trade and industry. Here again, the wealth drawn from colonies, including from the plunder of Bengal (1757) aided immensely in the Industrial Revolution in Britain (1760).
• Earlier we saw how Britain’s expanding overseas trade pushed Industrial Revolution. But that’s not all; Industrial Revolution itself began to strengthen overseas trade and colonialism. As England’s industrial manufactures developed, correspondingly the need to import manufactured goods from abroad was reduced. Soon the manufacturers fully supplied the internal market of England and now began to seek export markets. Such export markets initially exited in Europe, but later as industrialisation began to spread in the European continent, export markets could be found only in less-developed colonial countries which had not yet undergone modern industrialisation.
  • These countries, including India, were converted into almost exclusively agricultural goods exporting and industrial goods importing countries. A classic example of this conversion was India—from being a major exporter of cotton textiles in 18th century to being a major importer from England in 19th century.
• Thus, the industrial revolution transformed Europe from merchant capitalism to industrial capitalism. While the merchant capitalist interests lay in promoting trade in goods (goods which included industrial manufactures such as cotton textiles produced by Indian manufactures) from countries like India to Europe, the industrial capitalist interests lay in promoting Europe’s exports of industrial goods.

Important Details to Remember –

• In 1487, Bartholomew Diaz of Portugal reached the southernmost tip of Africa (named Cape of Good Hope).
• In 1492, Christopher Columbus of Spain set out to reach India but discovered America instead.
• In 1498, Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new sea route from Europe to India and became the first European to reach India by sea. From Africa, he sailed via the Cape of Good Hope and continued to India, reaching Calicut. He returned with a cargo which sold for 60 times the cost of his voyage!

Need For New Trading Routes

Details

• In popular western imagination, India was a fabled land of riches and of highly profitable trade. Many foreign rulers had invaded India for its fabulous wealth. Besides the plundering raids, a highly profitable trade between India and European countries dated back to the ancient times.
• Since the days of the Roman Empire, Indian cloths, spices and drugs were in great demand in Europe. Initially, this trade between East and West was carried on along several routes but in beginning of the late fourteenth century a number of changes in the geopolitical conditions in West Asia and Europe forced the traders to search for new routes. Now let’s look at the changes or causes which brought the search for new trading routes.

Geographical Causes

• Unstable Land Route: In the Middle ages (5th century CE to 15th century CE) the land route from the Middle East to Europe was preferred by the traders but with the rise of Arabs in the tenth century and their plundering raids along the route, the land route became unstable and dangerous for trade.
• Safe Passage through Water: While the land with a number of passes fell within the territory of one or the other kingdom, the oceans and seas had not yet been brought under control and thus offered a safe passage.

Technological Advancement

• Navigation: The period witnessed a number of technological advancements. The advancements in navigation (astrolabe for fixing the height of heavenly bodies for navigation and mariner’s compass) by the Arabs and ship building by the Europeans at a time when land route had become unstable made waterways a natural choice.
• Use of Gunpowder: By the end of thirteenth century gunpowder, which was invented in China in the ninth century, spread to Eurasia. As sea voyages gained popularity in the fifteenth century, canons and gunpowder began to be used on ships to protect them from attacks.
  • The use of gunpowder made ships safe from attacks as it added more firepower, was easier to carry, was more stable and helped in making of most destructive weapons of the time.

Political Causes

• Monopolies: The merchants of Venice and Genoa monopolized the trade between Asia and Europe. The western side, i.e. the Mediterranean area, was under the merchants of Venice and Genoa and eastern side, i.e. the Asian side, was under the Arab merchants. These merchants did not allow new merchants from other West European countries to trade through the old routes under their control.
• Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453 and established the Ottoman Empire in the area stretching from Syria to Egypt. This brought the old routes under the Turkish control. Moreover, expansion of Turkish power in eastern Europe and growth of Turkish navy alarmed the Europeans.
• Rise of New Nation States: The later part of the 15th century saw rise of centralised states with strong kings, like Spain and Portugal, who were keen to partake in trade with Asia. The Kings encouraged, often supported and sponsored geographical explorations and navigators.

Economic Causes

• Economic Growth in Europe: The European economy was expanding rapidly due to expansion of land under cultivation, introduction of improved plough and scientific rotation of crops. As a result of this growth, there was rise of towns and an increase in trade.
• Demand for Spices and Pepper: The economic revival in Europe increased demand for spices and pepper which were needed to make meat palatable.
• Tolls and Taxes: The tolls and taxes were constantly increased on both the European as well as the Asian side of the trade, which reduced the profit margins.
• Profit Maximization: Although the trade between Asia and Europe was carried on along several routes, yet it was highly profitable. However, raids along the land route and monopolies by various groups had been reducing the profits. Thus, there was attempt to maximize profit through new trade routes.

Psychological Causes

• Renaissance: The cultural revival or Renaissance in Europe during the fourteenth century infused a spirit of daring and adventure among the people of Western Europe.
• Glory: Above all the desire to achieve glory acted as inspiring factor for navigators and explorers.
• Mercantilism: A set of economic doctrines and policies involving state intervention to promote national prosperity and strength known as mercantilism had gripped the European states in its clutches.

Religious Causes

• Proselytizing Zeal: The explorers were motivated by zeal to spread Christianity into the new lands.

Early Efforts

Details

• Prince Henry the Navigator
  • Prince Henry of Portugal, nicknamed the ‘Navigator’ had become obsessed with the idea of finding a sea route to India. He was keen to circumvent the Muslim-dominated route ofthe Red sea.
  • However, Prince Henry died before his dream could be fulfilled. He is remembered as a great patron and sponsor of voyages than as a sailor.
• Bartholomew Diaz (1487)
  • In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz reached the southernmost tip of Africa (which he named Cape of Storms) and became the first known European to reach the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic.
  • The Portuguese later renamed the cape as ‘Cape of Good Hope’ as it represented the opening of a new route to the East.
  • Diaz later used his experience in the construction of a ship which was later used by Vasco da Gama.
• Vasco da Gama (First Portuguese India Armada, 1498)
  • Piloted by a Gujarati named Abdul Majid, Vasco da Gama sailed from the Cape of Good Hope and continued to India, reaching Calicut (Kozhikode) in 1498. He thus discovered a new sea route from Europe to India and became the first European to reach India by sea. This opened a new chapter in the history of India’s trade relations with Europe.
  • Vasco da Gama led two Portuguese India Armadas (or fleet of warships), the first and the fourth, sent under the patronage of King Manuel I of Portugal and was well received by the Zamorin (ruler) of Calicut, Manna Vikrama.
  • Vasco da Gama returned with a cargo which sold for 60 times the cost of his voyage.
• Pedro Alvarez Cabral (Second Portuguese India Armada, 1500)
  • In March 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral led the Second India Armada (also the First Brazil Armada as it marked the arrival of Europeans to Brazil on the way) with the aim of making a treaty with the Zamorin of Calicut and setting up a Portuguese factory.
  • However, Cabral ran into a conflict with the local Arab Merchants who then attacked the Portuguese factory at Calicut, killing more than 50 Portuguese. Outraged, Cabral captured ten Arab merchants’ ships anchored in the harbour, massacred nearly 600 Arabs on board and confiscated the cargo before putting the ships on fire.
• Vasco da Gama (Fourth Portuguese India Armada, 1502)
  • In 1502, Vasco da Gama revisited India and set up the following:
    • In 1503, the 1st Portuguese factory was set up at Cochin (Kochi).
    • In 1505, the 2nd factory was set up at Cannanore (or Kannur).
• Soon, Calicut, Cochin, Cannanore and Quilon (Kollam) became important trading centres of the Portuguese. The Portuguese trading points or factories on land were called Feitorias—these were unfortified trading outposts which also served as bases for naval fleet called armadas. The early spice trade comprised of mainly pepper and cinnamon.
• Formation of Portuguese State of India (Estado da India, 1503-04) The Portuguese State of India was meant to be a governing body of the various Portuguese fortresses and colonies overseas and it was required to function under a Viceroy. In effect, the formation of this body indicated that the Portuguese would no longer be content with mere spice trade but would set out to establish a Christian Portuguese state in the East and launch a holy war against Islam there.

Portuguese Governors

Francisco De Almeida (1505-09)

• Almeida was appointed as the first Portuguese Viceroy of India for a term of three years and sent with sufficient armed ships to protect Portuguese interests. He was directed by the government to build such Portuguese fortresses that would aim to establish Portuguese control over trade of the Indian Ocean.
• He adopted the ‘Blue Water Policy’ aimed at establishing naval supremacy of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean, rather than over land. He is credited with the construction of Fort Anjediva on Anjediva Island lying at the border of Muslim Bijapur and Hindu Vijayanagar states.
• In 1508, Portuguese fleet was attacked by joint Muslim naval force (Gujarat Sultanate and Mameluk Egyptian fleet) at Chaul and Dabul, with Almeida’s son losing his life in the battle of Chaul. Almeida, however, defeated the joint force in the Battle of Diu, thus establishing Portuguese supremacy over Indian Ocean.

Alfonzo-De-Albuquerque (1509-15)

• He was the greatest Portuguese Viceroy in India and is also called as the real founder of Portuguese power in India. He set up his headquarter at Cochin.
• In 1509, Albuquerque conquered Diu and in 1510 he conquered Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur, Yusuf Adil Shah. With the victory of Goa, regional kingdom of the Portuguese in India was established and Goa became ‘the first bit of Indian territory to be under the Europeans since the time of Alexander the Great’.
• Under Albuquerque, the Portuguese established their domination over the entire Asian coast from Hormuz in Persian Gulf to Malacca in Malaya and the Spice Islands in Indonesia. They shied away neither from waging wars nor from piracy and plunder for expanding their influence. In Bengal, Hooghly and Balasore became the Portuguese trading centres.
• Albuquerque thus made the Portuguese strong in India. He was an efficient administrator and integrated the locals into the administration. He wanted to establish permanent Portuguese settlements in India and with this aim in mind he encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women and propagate Christianity. He also abolished sati in regions under his control.

Nino De Cunha (1529-38)

• He was the next major Portuguese Governor after Albuquerque. In 1530, he transferred the government head office from Cochin to Goa, thus making Goa the official capital of the Portuguese in India.
• In this way, the Portuguese succeeded in establishing their foothold in India. One of the main reasons for the success of Portuguese on the sea was the inability of Mughals to develop a strong navy. Southern India was also outside the direct territorial influence of the Mughals, thus allowing the Portuguese to establish control.

Decline Of The Portuguese

Explanation

Several factors contributed to the decline of the Portuguese. The Viceroys who came after Albuquerque were weak and inefficient. Also in 1661, Portugal was at war with Spain and needed support from England. This led to the marriage of Princess Catherine of Portugal to Charles II of England and as dowry the insular and less inhabited areas of southern Bombay were handed over to the English (the Portuguese managed to retain all the mainland territory north of Bandra up to Thane and Bassein). This marked the beginning of the strong English presence in India.

Reasons For Decline Of The Portuguese

Political Causes

• After Albuquerque, the Portuguese administration in India became inefficient because his successors were weak & inefficient.
• The Portuguese officials were neglected by the home government. Their salaries were low which encouraged them to indulge in corruption and malpractice.
• Attachment to Spain: In 1580, Portugal got attached to the Spanish crown which linked it to the declining fortunes of Spain.
• Aristocratic Dominance: The Portuguese society was dominated by aristocrats. The merchants lacked the social influence required to mould the state policy suitable to their interests.
• Lack of Political Will: The Portuguese political masters were mainly concerned with establishing sea trading posts and not concerned in territorial expansion thus making them vulnerable to attacks on their trading posts.
• The Portuguese drew a very thin line between trade and piracy, which also aroused the hostility of the natives.

Social Causes

• Religious Conversions: The Portuguese were religious fanatics and resorted to forceful religious conversions in their spheres of influence. This led to a general sense of hostility among the locals against them.

Technological Causes

• Rise of other Naval Powers: Rise of other naval powers like the Dutch and British increased the competition on the naval routes leading to armed conflicts with the Portuguese.
• Loss of Spain’s Naval Supremacy: In 1588 Spain’s naval supremacy was challenged and busted by the British navy. This was a big jolt to Portuguese empire which had been attached to the Spanish empire.

Portuguese discovered Brazil which diverted their imperial interests away from India.

By mid-17th century, the Portuguese finally left India. But three of their settlements, namely Goa, Diu and Daman remained in their hands till 1961. In this way, Portuguese were not only the first to come to India but also the last ones to leave India.

Impact Of Portuguese

Details

Portuguese control of the Indian Ocean had significant socio-political, religious and economic consequences:

• The Portuguese began to propagate Christianity in the Malabar and the Konkan coast. Missionaries like St. Francis Xavier, Father Rudolf and Father Monserette played a leading role in propagating the Christian faith. In 1540, all temples of Goa were destroyed.
• The missionaries started schools and colleges along the west coast, where education was imparted in the native language.
• The missionaries undertook research on Indian history and culture. Fa Heras has made a deep study on the Indus Valley Civilisation.
• The Portuguese brought the printing press to India. The Bible came to be printed in the Kannada and Malayalam language.
• The Portuguese introduced into India several types of crops, fruits & vegetables which they had obtained from different countries. These included—potato, sweet potato, tobacco, corn, ladys finger, chilly, pineapple, papaya, sapota, leechi, orange, black pepper, groundnuts, cashew, almonds, etc.
• Portuguese influence also established the significance of navy in sea trade.

Conclusion

With all these developments, the Portuguese were reduced in their sphere of influence to Daman, Diu, Goa, East Africa and Timor. In a way the Portuguese became the victims of their early mover advantage as they kept on establishing only trading ports and did not make any significant territorial expansion to protect their interest.

Cornelius de Houtman (1596)

• In 1596, Cornelius de Houtman was the first Dutch traveler to reach India.

Dutch East India Company (1602)

• In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was formed and the Dutch Parliament gave it a charter empowering it to make war and peace with other states, acquire territories and build fortresses.
• But the main interest of the Dutch was in the Indonesian archipelago and the Spice Islands and not India. They soon pushed out the Portuguese from the Malay Straits and the Indonesian Spice Islands of Java and Sumatra and even defeated English attempts there.
• However, they discovered that Indian trade was necessary to carry out trade with South-West Asia, as there was a good demand of Indian cloth there. In return, Indians demanded pepper and spices. Hence, the credit of first making ‘Indian cloth’ as an item of export goes to the Dutch.

Dutch Factories

• In 1605, the first Dutch factory was established at Masulipatnam in Andhra.
• The second factory was set up in 1606 at Petapuli (Nizampatnam).
• In 1610, the Dutch signed a treaty with the king of Chandragiri and established their headquarters at
  Pulicat. Here they minted their gold coins called pagodas.
• The first Dutch company in Bengal was setup in Pipali (1627) later in Chinsurah (1635).
• They soon established trading depots at Surat, Broach, Cambay and Ahmedabad in Gujarat, Cochin in Kerala, Nagapatam (or Nagapattinam) in Madras, Masulipatnam in Andhra, Chinsura (Gustavus fort) and Peepli in Bengal, Mahe on the Malabar Coast, Agra in present-day Uttar Pradesh and Patna in Bihar.
• Dutch factories were also established at Kasimbazaar, Karaikal, Balasore, Baranagore and Golconda.
• In 1690, the Dutch headquarters were transferred from Pulicat to Nagapattinam.

The head of Dutch factories were called factors who were classified as traders and the Dutch Model of Trade was based on Cartel or Cooperative System. The Dutch struck many decisive blows to the Portuguese at Goa, Malabar, Ceylon, Malacca, Colombo and Cochin and virtually replaced the Portuguese. But meanwhile, an important rival, the English had emerged.

Anglo-Dutch Rivalry

• In 1623, Amboyna massacre took place in Indonesia where the Dutch killed 10 Englishmen and 9 Japanese. After this massacre, the Dutch began to restrict themselves to Malay Archipelago and the English to India.
• In 1759, the Dutch were defeated by the English in the decisive Battle of Bedara (Bengal), ending the Dutch power in India (the English, however, had to bitterly contest another European rival, the French, before emerging fully victorious by the end of the 18th century).

Dutch Decline in India

• Agreement between Dutch and British: The exchange of Dutch EIC’s Indian holdings with that of the Indonesian holdings of British EIC in 1667 in an attempt to settle the intermittent conflicts between the two trading companies, left India to the British EIC.
• Interests in Spice Trade: The Dutch main interest did not lay in India, but in the spice trade with Indonesian Islands. Thus, they failed to foresee the fortunes India held.
• Corruption: With the declining fortunes of Dutch EIC in India due to continuous confrontations with British EIC, the Dutch EIC officials colluded with British EIC officials for safe passage. This made the Dutch EIC possessions weak in India and ultimately led to Dutch moving out from India.
• Steady Increase in British Influence: The steady increase in British influence as a result of the privileges received by it, enabled it to establish hold over trade in indigo, silk, among other items which resulted in decline of Dutch fortunes.
• Naval Setback: With the failure of the Hugli expedition in 1759, the Dutch naval power received a severe setback.

English East India Company (1600)

Details

• England too had become impatient to participate in the profitable Asian trade. In 1599, a company to trade with the East was formed under the auspices of a group of merchants known as the Merchant Adventurers. The Company popularly came to be known as the East India Company (or EIC, nickname- John Company).
• In 1600, The East India Company was granted a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth giving it the exclusive privilege of trading east of the Cape of Good Hope for a period of 15 years. As compared to the Dutch Company, it was a much smaller concern. Its chief asset was its simple organisation – a court of 24 directors elected annually by the general court of shareholders.
• In the beginning, the English Company concentrated on spice trade. The initial voyages of the Company were made to the Spice Islands in Indonesia. Soon the English discovered the importance of Indian goods especially textiles as a barter commodity for spice trade. Thus, in 1608, Surat in Gujarat was established as the trade transit point and the company ships were docked there. The Company now planned to open a factory at Surat in Gujarat and Captain Hawkins was sent to negotiate consent with the Mughal Emperor.

Captain Hawkins (1608)

Details

• In 1608, Captain William Hawkins was sent as a representative of the English Company to the Court of Jahangir to obtain permission to open a factory at Surat.
• Hawkins was the first Englishman to set foot on Indian soil (Surat, 24 August 1608). He could speak Turkish language and he came in a ship named ‘Hector’.
• He arrived at Surat and from there he went to the court of Jahangir at Agra in 1609. The English Company was given permission by a royal farman to open factories on the west coast. But the English were not satisfied with this concession as they wanted permission for the whole of the country.
• Moreover, Hawkins had to leave Agra owing to Portuguese intrigue and the English realised that they would first have to deal with the Portuguese before gaining favours from the Mughals.

English Factories

Details

• A factory was merely a trading post within which were located the warehouses, offices and houses of the company’s employees. It is noteworthy that no manufacturing activity was carried out in this factory.

Early Factories

• In 1611, the English opened their first factory in the south at Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam). In 1611 itself, the English defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally Hole near Surat. This convinced Jahangir and, the English were allowed to set up a permanent factory at Surat in 1613.
• In 1615, taking the policy of expansion further, Sir Thomas Roe was sent by King James I as an ambassador to the court of Jahangir. Roe was successful in obtaining royal farman permitting the British to trade and establish factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire.
• Soon the English began to feel insecure in the absence of fortified settlements and made an attempt to fortify Surat (in 1625) but the Mughals frustrated the attempt and imprisoned the English. The English then decided to shift their focus to South India to avoid direct confrontation with the Mughals.
  • Conditions in South India were more favourable to the English as they did not have to face a strong Indian government there. The great Vijayanagara kingdom had been overthrown in 1565 and its place taken up by relatively smaller and weaker states.

Madras

• In 1632, Sultan of Golconda issued a Golden Farman in favour of the English, permitting them to trade freely from the ports of Golconda on annual payment of 500 pagodas.
• In 1639, Francis Day was able to obtain Madras on lease from the Raja of Chandragiri and shifted the centre of English activity to Madras. The Raja allowed the English to fortify Madras, to administer it and to coin the money on the condition that they will pay him half the customs revenue of the port. Thus the English set up a factory and built a small fort around it called Fort St. George.
• In 1690, the British bought the Fort Devanampatnam, near Madras, and renamed it as Fort St David.

Bengal

• In 1651, at Hugh, the first English factory in Bengal was set up upon receiving permission from Sultan Shuja (second son of Emperor Shah Jahan), the Subahdar of Bengal. In 1658, all establishments of the Company in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Coromandel Coast were brought under the control of Fort St. George.
• In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanuti which was fortified in 1696 and called Fort
  William.
• In 1698 the English Company obtained from Subahdar of Bengal Azim-us-Shan, the zamindari (i.e.
  right to collect revenue) of the villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Gobindapur on payment of 1,200
  rupees to the previous proprietors. In 1700, the Bengal factories were placed under Fort William. Soon the villages grew into a city known as Calcutta.

Bombay

• In 1662, King Charles-II of England received Bombay as dowry on marrying a Portuguese princess.
• In 1668, the Crown transferred it to the Company on an annual rent of ten ponds and it was soon fortified in the wake of threats from the rising Maratha power. Bombay quickly replaced Surat as the principal depot of the Company on the West coast.

English And The Mughals

Internal Developments Of The Company

• Between 1615 and 1686, the company grew from strength to strength. In 1625, the Governors and Directors of the company were given judicial powers. In 1661, the company was empowered to send ships of war with men and ammunition for the safety of its possessions overseas. In 1683, it got full powers to declare war and make peace, to raise and maintain an army.
• As early as the 1680s, the Company had plans to secure English dominion in India and was determined to make Indians pay for the conquest of their own country. On several occasions, the Court of Directors wrote to the Company authorities advising them to adopt such a civil and military policy that would secure a large revenue and enable the English to maintain their force and make English a nation in India.

Aurangzeb

• In 1680, Aurangzeb had issued a farman that the Company’s trade was to be customs free everywhere except Surat. In 1688, hostilities between the English and the Mughal authorities first broke out when the English captured Hugli and declared war on Emperor Aurangzeb. The English had seriously misjudged the situation and underestimated Mughal strength; they were soon defeated and driven out of the factories in Bengal.
• Realising that they were not yet strong enough to fight the Mughal power, they once again decided to rely on humble entreaties and flattery and get concessions from the Mughal emperor. Aurangzeb too readily pardoned the English for their mistake as he saw that foreign trade benefitted Indian artisans and merchants and enriched the state treasury. He therefore permitted them to resume trade on payment of 1.5 lakh rupees as compensation. The farman of 1691 granted by Aurangzeb exempted the English Company from payment of customs duties in Bengal in return for an annual payment.

Farrukhsiyar

• In 1717, The East India Company succeeded in securing valuable privileges under a royal farman, Farman of 1717, by the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar.
• Described as the Magna Carta of the Company, the farman was instrumental in increasing the Company’s stronghold in Bengal. The Company later colonised Bengal followed by the rest of India.

Provisions of the Farman –

• The farman confirmed the privileges granted in 1691 and extended them to Gujarat. It contained following provisions:
  • The British were allowed duty-free trade in Bengal in lieu of an annual payment of 30,000 rupees.
  • Exemption from payment of all dues at Surat in lieu of one-time settlement of 10,000 rupees.
  • The Company retained its old privilege of exemption from payment of all dues at Hyderabad and for Madras was required to pay only the existing rent.
  • The Company was allowed to rent more territory around Calcutta.
  • The Company was allowed to use their own currency (minted at Bombay) throughout India.
  • The Company was also granted the right to issue passes or dastaks (a permit exempting payment of transit duties) for the movement of such goods.
  • The Company’s servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered under this farman and were required to pay the same taxes as Indian merchants.
    • However, the dastaks were later misused by the Company’s servants to carry out private trade. The Company’s’ servants were paid low salaries and their real income came from the permission the Company granted them to carry on private trade within the country, even as trade between India and Europe was reserved for the Company.

Farman as Source of Conflict

• The provisions of the farman became a source of perpetual conflict between the Company and the Nawabs of Bengal. The strong Nawabs of Bengal such as Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan objected to the English interpretation of the farman of 1717. They exercised strict control over the English traders and prevented them from misusing the dastaks.
• Despite strong political control by native rulers, commercial affairs of the company flourished. Madras, Bombay and Calcutta became the nuclei of such activities. Large number of Indian merchants and bankers were attracted to these cities.
• As far as the company’s servants were concerned, they were keen to take up service in India despite low salaries. This was because they were permitted to carry on private trade in India on payment of same taxes as Indian merchants.

Reasons For Success Of British East India Company

Details

• The British EIC was a late entrant in the race of European powers. They had their own set of challenges. The various reasons that helped the British EIC emerge a clear winner among all the other European powers are as follows:

Political Reason

• Political Freedom: One of the most important reasons for success of British EIC was the tremendous amount of political freedom given to them by their government which their peers did not have. They were allowed to raise armies, wage wars, fortify forts and make treaties making them virtually a government in themselves.
• Simple Organisation: The chief asset of the English Est India company was its simple organization. It had twentyfour directors elected annually by the general court of shareholders.
• Use of Diplomacy: The English EIC appointed ambassadors to courts of Indian Rulers, e.g. appointment of Sir Thomas Roe to the Mughal court, held it secure right to open factory and trade in any party of Mughal Empire .
• Kingmakers: Though this policy was introduced by French commander Dupleix during the Carnatic wars of succession, the British EIC used it to their advantage to gain control of major ports and high revenue generating areas. It’s because of this policy only the British EIC captured Bengal which acted as the base for Indian colonization.
• Aggressive Foreign Policy: The State was willing to colonise and wage wars for economic benefit. Unlike her rivals it was willing to dedicate everything in her foreign policy to economic ends.

Economic Reasons

• Financial Security: Unlike the other companies the British EIC was never starved of funds as it was backed by the British government. The British government was far better than its peers in terms of internal conflicts and corrupt administrators.
• Privileges: The British EIC steadily spread its influence as result of privileges it received. The privileges enabled it to establish an increasing hold over trade of indigo, silk, cotton, among others. It also reduced the cost of trade in India.

Social Reasons

• Non-interference in the Society: Unlike the other companies the British EIC treaded cautiously and did interfere in the social affairs of the country.

Technological Advancements

• Superior Navy: The British EIC had a far more superior navy which not only helped them to carry cargo but also helped them to win and protect their frontier against other colonial powers.
• Superiority in Art of War: The British EIC had more disciplined and professional fighting units. The British officials were also far more skilled in diplomacy and had won many wars before they were actually fought. 
• Mechanized Military and Defence: The British EIC had the most sophisticated machinery of the time. This coupled with the fortification of their establishments whenever they got the chance made them invincible.

Geographic Advantage

• Strategic Presence: The British EIC had major strategic ports in its kitty which helped it keep in check trade and conflicts with other companies during the period. The ports of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta gave them strategic advantage over the whole of India’s coastline.

The French Trading Company (1664)

• In 1664, Colbert formed the Companie des Indes Orientales. The French trading company (under the governorship of Colbert) was granted a license by King Louis IV to trade with India and the East Indies.

French Factories

• In 1667, the first French factory was set up at Surat with Francis Caron as its Director General.
• In 1669, a factory was set up at Masulipatnam.
• In 1672, Caron was replaced by Francois Martin who, in 1673, received a village as grant from the King of Bijapur Sher Khan Lodhi and founded it as Pondicherry. Pondicherry later emerged as the French capital in India, and Martin came to be known as the Father of Puducherry.
• In 1674, the French also received a site near Calcutta from the ruler of Bengal where they built the town of Chandernagore (1690-92).
• In 1693, the Dutch snatched Pondicherry but it was restored to the French under the Treaty of Reswick (1697). In this way, the French East India Company established its firm base in Chandernagore and Pondicherry.
• The French also acquired control over Islands of Mauritius and Reunion in the Indian Ocean.
• Between 1697 and 1739, the French further consolidated their position by adding several bases including Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore and Kasimbazar.

The real trouble started when the French won control of Tanjore which the British considered vital for their trade security.

Reason of French Rise in India

• Backed by Government: The French EIC was fully backed by the French government. The French government’s resources were at its disposal.
• Policy of Kingmakers: The policy of kingmakers was first used by the French among Europeans during the succession wars of Carnatic and Hyderabad under the leadership of Dupleix. He aimed to secure monetary, commercial or territorial favours from the victor. Later, the policy was mastered by the British.
• Gains from War of Succession: After the Carnatic and Hyderabad wars of succession. The French got the territories near Pondicherry and Masulipatam. Moreover, Dupleix was made the honorary governor of east coast from Krishna to Kanyakumari. The gains could fund French EIC.
• Lack of Central Authority in South India: South India lacked central authority since the death of Aurangzeb. This coupled with raids by the Maratha chiefs resulted in politically unsettled conditions and administrative disorganisation, which created conditions for the French rise in India.

Causes of French Decline in India

Political Causes

• Dependency on French Government: The French EIC was heavily dependent on the French government. It was controlled by the french government which appointed its directors after 1723. The State control of the company smothered the drive, skill and initiative of the company.
• Weak Organizational Structure: The French EIC suffered from weak organizational structure.
• French Continental Preoccupation: The French government was preoccupied in continental ambitions, which involved the country into deeper political muddle in Europe and considerably strained her resources.

Economic Reasons

• Lack of Financial Autonomy: The company ’s finances were completely in the hands of French government. In addition to this the finances/revenue from south India were inadequate to meet the needs of company’s operation in India.
• Rampant Corruptions: The company was riddled with corrupt officials who made it difficult for the company to face the British challenge in India.
• Static Society: The French society lacked dynamism which was seen in the English society.

First Carnatic War (1746-48)

Immediate Context: Austrian War of Succession (1740)

• The immediate context for conflict between two European rivals in India was provided by the War of Austrian Succession in Europe which broke out in Europe in 1740 between Austria and Prussia. In this war, Britain and France joined opposite camps.
• Perhaps conscious of their relatively weaker position, the French tried hard to prevent the extension of war to India and Dupleix advised his English counterpart to maintain neutrality. But the English did not agree, instead deliberately adopted aggressive stand and seized some French ships off the south-eastern coast of India.
• The French had no fleet in India, hence Dupleix (the French Governor General) messaged La Bourdonnais (the French Governor of Mauritius) for reinforcements. La Bourdonnais immediately left with a squadron of 3,000 men towards the Coromandel Coast.
• As soon as the help arrived, the French attacked the English and captured the British possessions in Fort St George, Madras and other nearby areas (21 September 1746). Included among the prisoners of war was Robert Clive. The First Carnatic War had begun.

The English Seek Protection from the Nawab of Carnatic, Nawab Anwaruddin

• Anwaruddin, the Nawab of Carnatic, disapproved of hostilities in his kingdom. Thus, when the English appealed to him for protection, the Nawab asked the French to quit Madras.
• But the French were now in no mood to retreat and neglected the advice just as the English had done earlier.

Battle of St. Thomas (or St. Thome, 1746) / Battle of Adyar

• The Nawab now sent a large army to fight against the French. A large Indian army of 10,000 under Mahfuz Khan met a small French army consisting of 230 Europeans and 700 Indian soldiers under Capt. Paradise on the banks of River Adyar at Mylapore near St. Thomas in 1746.
• But to everyone’s surprise, a handful of properly trained soldiers of the French army routed Anwaruddin’s vast army. This amply demonstrated the superiority of the European troops and exposed the military weakness of the Indian rulers.
• Dupleix learnt the lesson that in any quarrel between Indian princes, his disciplined army would be very useful. And in the 18th-century political chaos, there was no dearth of Indian princes who would invite Dupleix’s assistance to turn the scales in their favour.
• At that time, Indian rulers were not guided by patriotism and did not hesitate in inviting foreigners in settling accounts with their rivals. In this way, it was Dupleix who first showed the way of intervening in disputes of the Indian rulers and thereby acquiring political control – a technique which was later perfected by the English Company.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)

• Even as the French continued the siege, the War of Austrian Succession came to an end by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) between Great Britain, France, and the Dutch; on the basis of mutual restitution of conquests.
• This brought an end to the first round of Anglo-French conflict in India as well. Madras was restored to the English and the French got Louisburg in North America.
• The first round of conflict had ended in a draw.
  • Though the first war ended in 1748, the rivalry in trade and over the possessions in India continued. The English and French continued to take opposite sides in the internal politics of India.

Significance of the First Carnatic War

• For the first time, techniques of 18th-century European warfare were tried out in India.
• The war revealed the superiority of Western armies over Indian armies because of their better equipment and organisation.
• It showed that even a small, disciplined European force could easily defeat a larger Indian army.
• It exposed the weaknesses of the Indian government and armies, thereby arousing the greed of both companies for territorial expansion in India.

Second Carnatic War (1749-54)

Details

• Though the general war between the British and French had ended, the rivalry in trade and over possessions in India continued. Moreover, the war had revealed to them the weakness of Indian administration and armies, and thereby had arisen the greed of both the companies for territorial expansion in India.
• Dupleix, through his experience of working with the Nawab of Carnatic, evolved the strategy of using the welldisciplined, modern French army to intervene in the mutual quarrels of Indian princes and, by supporting one against the other, securing monetary, commercial, or territorial favours from the victor (First example of Subsidiary Alliance in India)
• Dynastic feuds in South India provided the context for the second round of Anglo-French conflict in the south. The succession disputes at both Carnatic and Hyderabad provided the French Governor General Dupleix an opportunity to intervene in Indian politics.

Immediate Context: Succession Disputes in Carnatic and Hyderabad

• Earlier we saw that in 1740, the Marathas had invaded the Carnatic, killed Nawab Dost Ali and took his son-in-law Chanda Sahib as prisoner to Satara.
• In 1743, the Nizam of Hyderabad felt prompted to come to the Carnatic and appoint Anwaruddin Khan as the Nawab of Carnatic. But in 1748, Chanda Sahib was set free by the Marathas and the same year, Nizam of Hyderabad Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah passed away. He was succeeded by his son Nasir Jung but his grandson, Muzaffar Jung laid claim to the throne.
• Muzaffar Jung now allied with Chanda Sahib to gain their respective seats in Hyderabad and the Carnatic.

Intervention by Dupleix

• In this way, Dupleix soon got his opportunity and astounding success awaited his plans. He was able to interfere in the wars of succession that started after the death of Asaf Jah (1748). He pledged French support to Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib.
• Thus, a tripartite understanding was developed among the French, Chanda Sahib and Muzaffar Jung.

French Install their Protege, Chanda Sahib, in Carnatic (1749)

• In August 1749, the three allies ambushed and killed Anwaruddin at the Battle of Ambur, near Vellore. His son Muhammad Ali fled to Trichinopoly and Chanda Sahib became Nawab of Carnatic. He rewarded the French with a grant of 80 villages near Pondicherry.
• Feeling the extension of French influence, the British decided to support Nasir Jung for the throne of the Nizam and Muhammad Ali for the Nawabship of the Carnatic. Thus, began the second phase of the Anglo-French War, also known as the Second Carnatic War.

French Install their Protege, Muzaffar Jung, in Hyderabad

• Soon the French and their allies marched to the Deccan. The French army surprised and killed Nasir Jung and installed French protege Muzaffar Jung as the Nizam of Hyderabad. Muzaffar Jung amply rewarded Dupleix by appointing him honorary governor of all the Mughal Dominions south of the River Krishna. Territories near Pondicherry as well as the famous market town of Masulipatam in Orissa were also ceded to the French. In return, Dupleix placed at the disposal of Muzaffar Jung the services of his best officer – Marquis de Bussy, with a French army. This was also the best way of safeguarding French interests at the Hyderabad court.
• Dupleix was now at the height of his political power and his dream of an empire now seemed likely to be realised. Soon afterwards, Muzaffar Jung was killed in an accidental skirmish (February 1751). However, Bussy (a French general) maintained French influence in the Deccan by quickly placing his nominee Salabat Jung on the throne.
• In this way, Bussy went on to control the political fortunes of the Deccan for seven years and even induced the Nizam to grant him four rich districts on the Coromandel Coast known as the Northern Circars (or Northern Sarkars), comprising Mustafanagar, Ellore, Rajamundry and Chicacole. The French power in south India was now at its height but not far away from its fall.

Emergence of Robert Clive

• Meanwhile, Muhammad Ali (the son of the late Nawab Anwaruddin) had taken refuge in the fortress of Trichinopoly and the repeated attempts of Chanda Sahib and the French to capture the fortress had failed. The British, realising that the situation implied a serious threat to their position in Southern India, now decided to put their entire strength behind Muhammad Ali.
• At this crucial juncture, there appeared a man on the scene endowed with a daring genius, whose intelligence and bravery saved the fortunes of the English. He was a young clerk of the Company, Robert Clive. He suggested that French pressure on Muhammad Ali could be released by attacking Arcot, the capital of Carnatic. Thus, attack upon Arcot was to be used as a diversionary tactic. Chanda Sahib would have to divert an effective part of his army for the protection of Arcot.

Siege of Arcot (August 1751)

• Clives plan seemed well conceived and once it was approved, Clive stormed Arcot with a small force of only 210 men and captured it (August 1751). The plan had the desired effect and Chanda Sahib, alarmed by the fall of his capital, sent a large portion of his force from Trichinopoly which comprised of 4,000 men to recapture Arcot. Clive successfully sustained the famous siege for 53 days (23 September to 14 November). In the meantime, Clive received help in the form of reinforcements from Madras and some Indian allies (rulers of Mysore, Tanjore and the Marathas). Clive then came out of the besieged town, attacked and defeated Chanda Sahib at several important battles including one fought at Kaveripak.
• Meanwhile, encouraged by the capture of Arcot, a strong English force led by Stringer Lawrence relieved Trichinopoly following the surrender of French forces (June 1752). Chanda Sahib was treacherously captured and beheaded by the Raja of Travancore. Muhammad Ali then became the undisputed Nawab of the Carnatic. Dupleixs high hopes were thus dashed to the ground.

Recall of Dupleix, 1754

• The French defeat at Trichinopoly sealed the fate of Dupleix. The Directors of the French Company did not appreciate his political ambitions and disproved of the expenses they involved and recalled him. On 1 August 1754, Godeheu succeeded Dupleix as French Governor General in India. Recall of Dupleix proved to be a big blow to the fortunes of the French Company in India.

Treaty of Pondicherry, 1755

• In complete reversal to Dupleix’s policy, Godeheu signed a peace treaty, the Treaty of Pondicherry, with the English in 1755.
• As per this treaty, both the companies agreed not to interfere in the quarrels of the Indian princes. The second round of conflict had also proved inconclusive.
• Nevertheless, after this treaty, though the French continued to maintain their hold over Hyderabad for some time, they had lost much of their prestige and their predominant position in the Deccan had been definitely undermined.
• On the other hand, English influence had been established in Carnatic, with their candidate Muhammad Ali installed as the Nawab of Carnatic.

Third Carnatic War (1756-63 AD)

Immediate Context: Seven Years’ War in Europe

• Like the first Carnatic war, even this war was an echo of the hostilities in Europe. In 1756 the Seven Years’ War broke out in Europe.
• In this War, England and France joined opposite camps which ended the short peace between the European companies in India as well.

Arrival of Count de Lally (April 1758)

• This time the French Government made a determined effort to oust the English from India. For this purpose, the French sent an impressive French army headed by Count de Lally, who reached India after a long voyage of 12 months in April 1758. By this time, the English had already won the Battle of Plassey and they returned to India with fresh reinforcements of men and material.

Problems Faced by the French Army

• Lally started his work vigorously. He attacked Fort St. David and captured it and other small English possessions in this region. But the French victory was only short-lived as problems of varying nature began to surface on the horizon. Lally’s attack on Madras ended in failure as he could not get naval support in time. The French Company also faced shortage of ammunition as well as lack of funds to pay the troops. Lally was rude and overbearing in his conduct with the subordinates, i.e. the Company’s servants of Pondicherry. He held a very low opinion of them and looked down upon them as dishonest rogues to be set right with threats and punishment. In such circumstances, both Lally and his soldiers distrusted each other and the French troops felt badly demoralised.
• At this critical juncture, rash and headstrong Lally committed another great blunder of prevailing upon Bussy and recalling him from the Nizam’s court, leaving the French army under incompetent commanders. Having assessed the situation, the English sent an army from Bengal to the Northern Circars. They occupied Rajamundry and Masulipatam and also concluded a favourable treaty with Nizam Salabat Jung.
• French influence in Deccan was thus irrevocably lost.

Battle of Wandiwash (1760)

• The battle still continued and Lally was eventually defeated decisively at the Battle of Wandiwash or Vandvasi now in Tamil Nadu (22 January 1760). The English army led by General Eyre Coot totally routed the French army under Lally and Bussy was taken prisoner.
• Defeated, the French retreated to Pondicherry. But, the English soon laid siege to Pondicherry as well, forcing Lally to ask for help from Nawab Hyder Ali of Mysore. However, due to lack of coordination, the contingent sent by Hyder returned to Mysore without fighting even a single battle.
• The French capital of Pondicherry finally surrendered on 16 January 1761. The fall of Pondicherry sounded the death knell of French dominions in India. Shortly thereafter Jinje and Mahe on the Malabar Coast also surrendered to the English, leaving the French without even a toehold in India.

Peace of Paris, 1763

• The Third Carnatic War ended officially in 1763 with the conclusion of the Peace of Paris, at the end of the Seven Years’ War.
• As per the treaty, Pondicherry and some other French settlements were no doubt returned to France, but these were never to be fortified again and could only function as mere trading centres. The worst fate awaited Lally. He was detained as a prisoner of war for two years, after which he was allowed to return to his home country, where, far from receiving any kind treatment, he was first imprisoned and then executed.
• Thus, the Third Carnatic War brought down the curtain to the Anglo-French rivalry in India and cleared the way for the establishment of the British Empire.

Continental Ambitions of France

• France in the 18th century remained preoccupied with its continental ambitions, which considerably strained its resources. The French monarchs of the time were fighting for the natural frontiers’ of their country, which meant acquisition of territory towards Rhine and towards Italy. Such an expansionist policy of France kept it perpetually trapped in the wars of Europe and diverted its energies away from colonial acquisitions. In the end, the French gained almost nothing on the continent and even lost its colonial possessions.
• On the other hand, England did not covet an inch of European territory but followed its single-minded objective of colonial expansion, an objective in which it achieved considerable success.

Different Systems of Government

• Several historians have attributed the failure of France to its inferior system of government as compared to England. While the French government of the time was autocratic and suffered from corruption and inefficiency, the English government was run by an enlightened oligarchy, under which it was making immense progress towards a constitutional set up.
• Emphasising on the rottenness of the French system of government, historian Alfred Lyall wrote, ‘It was the short sighted, ill managed European policy of Louis XV, misguided by his mistresses and by incompetent ministers, that France lost her Indian settlements’.

Difference in Organisation of two Companies

• The French Company had been formed with a majority of capital contributed by the monarch with a guarantee of dividend to the shareholders. As a result, the directors of the Company, nominated by the king himself, took very little interest in the progress of the Company. Naturally, the financial position of the Company suffered badly and many times it was revived by government subsidy. Such a body was ill-equipped to support the ambitions of Dupleix and his expensive wars.
• On the contrary, the English Company was an independent commercial corporation with a court of Directors who were greatly interested in the welfare of the Company. The Company mostly maintained good financial health and was at one time seen as the milch-cow of the British government.

Over-dependence on France

• Unlike the English East India Company, the French East India Company was a State concern, depending for everything on the home government. Its freedom of action was very much limited by the charter and the whims and fancies of the rulers.
• Growing into a department of state, the Company lost the energy and vigour of a private enterprise. Its limited resources were inadequate for company employees. The viceroys and their subordinates very often indulged in private trade smuggling, slave trade etc. which directly or indirectly contributed much to the deviation from the main purpose and the consequent collapse of the French power in India.

Seats of Power In India

• While the English had three well-established seats of power in India, namely, Bombay, Madras and Calcutta, and had in their possession one dockyard and an excellent harbour.
• The French had only one seat of power, Pondicherry, and a harbour and sea base at Mauritius, but it was distant and ill-equipped.

Responsibility of Dupleix

• Despite Dupleix’s political capabilities, he could never escape the responsibility for French defeat. He was so gripped by his political ambitions that he put a blind eye to several other aspects of the struggle. For instance, in his zeal for political conquests, he failed to attend to the fast deteriorating financial and trading aspects of the Company. Hence, Dupleix is also held partly responsible for the French defeat at the hands of the English.

Impact of British Success in Bengal

• Some historians consider the British success in Bengal as the most significant factor for French defeat and English victory in India. According to them, what really turned the tide in Britain’s favour was its recent access to the rich resources of Bengal. British had occupied Bengal and its resources were liberally used in the Third Carnatic War.
• It was rightly said by VA Smith that no General could have won the empire of India by starting from Pondicherry as a base and contending with a power which held Bengal and command of the sea.

Dwindling Naval Strength

• The lack of naval strength of the French compared to that of the English was one of the decisive factors for the failure of the French in India.
• The French success in 1746 was due to its naval superiority in the Coromandel Coast but this superiority could not be maintained by the French beyond 1748 because during the War of Austrian Succession the French naval strength was so greatly reduced that it had hardly any battle ships left with it in the Seven Years’ War

Other Factors

• Recall of Dupleix: Recall of Dupleix proved to be a mistake of the French.
  • The vacuum created was not filled by the generals who succeeded him. Similarly appointment of Count de Lally as the French Governor General and Commander in Chief during the Third Carnatic war proved disastrous as he lacked the foresight and statesmanship of Dupleix. His departure from Hyderabad ended the French influence there
• Rashness and Arrogance of Lally: Count de Lally was rash and arrogant. His behaviour so greatly alienated his subordinates that they openly rejoiced when he was defeated by the English.
• Absence of Permanent Naval Presence: The French had no permanent naval presence in India
  while the British had a formidable naval presence. The British Navy was also superior.

Commercial Superiority and Better Financial Position

• The trade carried on by the English Company was much bigger than the French Company. In between 1736 to 1756, the trade of British Company was many times than that of French company. The English East India Company was an asset to the British Government, for the Government even received loans from it.

Private Character of the English Company

• The British Company was a private enterprise and this created a spirit of self reliance. The British Government interfered in the affairs of the Company only when it was necessary to secure the interests of its shareholders. Thus the English Company moved with its own initiative and with the moral support of the Government at home.

Naval Superiority

• The naval superiority of the English in the Seven Years’ War enabled the English to keep their communication with India undisturbed, to keep their settlements at Bombay and Calcutta supplied with necessary reinforcements and to isolate the French force in the Carnatic.

British Settlement of Bengal

• The early control over Bengal at the start of Third Carnatic War helped the British seize Chandernagore and take the fight to the south. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 proved to be decisive in establishing British supremacy in Bengal as well as Carnatic.

Wars

Associated Battles

Associated Treaties

First Carnatic War (1746-48)

Battle of St. Thome

Treaty of Aix-La-Chappelle (1748)

Second Carnatic War (1749-54)

Battle of Ambur

Treaty of Pondicherry (1754)

Third Carnatic War (1757-63)

Battle of Wandiwash

Treaty of Paris (1763)

Bengal Before the British Conquest

Bengal was the most fertile and richest province in India. Its rich resources and profitable trade attracted various foreign companies, including Dutch, French, and English.

Bengal was an important province for the British. From Bengal, the English EIC primarily exported cotton textiles, silk, indigo, and saltpetre, which constituted the majority of the British exports from India.

Because of the various farmans, English EIC and its servants had a profitable trade in Bengal. While the trade between India and Europe was exclusively reserved for the Company, the employees were allowed to conduct private trade within the country.

Even though the Company’s employees were paid very low salaries, they earned a considerable income from their private trade. That’s why they were so keen to take service in India.

Siraj-ud-Daulah (April 1756-June 1757)

About

• • Siraj’s succession was challenged by two other contenders for the throne, Shaukat Jung (Faujdar of Purnea) and Ghaseti Begum (Alivardi’s daughter). This resulted in intense court factionalism and support was offered to different warring groups by a dominant group in the Nawab’s court comprising Jagat Seth, Umichand (or Amir Chand), Raj Ballabh, Rai Durlabh, Mir Jafar, zamindars and others who were also opposed to Siraj.
  • This seriously destabilised the administration of Bengal and the advantage was taken by English East India Company.
• Main reasons for conflict between the Nawab of Bengal and the English Company were:

• • Farman of 1717: In 1717, the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a farman (royal order) granting the British East India Company many trading privileges. This farman became a perpetual source of conflict between the Bengal Nawabs and the English Company.
    • For one, it meant loss of revenue to the Bengal government and second, dastaks were misused by the Company’s servants to evade taxes on their private trade.
  • Shelter to Krishna Das: The English Company had given shelter to Krishna Das, son of Raj Ballabh, who had fled with immense treasures against the Nawab’s will.
  • Support to Ghaseti Begum: The Company had also offended the Nawab by giving support to the claims of Ghaseti Begum.
  • Immediate Cause: The breaking point came when the English Company, anticipating another round of Anglo-French struggle, began to strengthen the fortifications of Fort William and mounted guns on its walls.
    • Siraj pleaded repeatedly with the English to desist from further fortification, but to no avail. Seeing his own authority flouted in his own dominion, Siraj-ud-Daulah decided to launch an offensive.

Black Hole Tragedy

• On 15 June 1756, Siraj-ud-Daulah surrounded Fort William and the siege lasted for five days. During this while, Governor Roger Drake and some of his men escaped through the back door down the Hooghly River, took refuge at Fulta near the sea and waited for help from Madras. They left behind 146 persons, including some women and children, under the command of John Zepahnaih Holwell.
  • After the fort fell on 20 June, the Nawab renamed Calcutta as Alinagar, placed it under the charge of Manik Chand, and himself returned to Murshidabad.
• Subsequently, Holwell and others were imprisoned in a small room of the fort popularly known as Black Hole (18 feet long and 14 feet 10 inches wide) in conditions of excessive heat and crowding owing to summer solstice. It is believed that out of 146 persons imprisoned in that room, only 26 survived the next morning, the rest were probably trampled down by the others for places near the window. The incident came to be known as the ‘Black Hole Tragedy’.
  • The incident was held up as an example of British heroism and Nawab’s callousness. Siraj-ud-Daulah was portrayed a cruel monster and held directly responsible for the deaths.
  • The English Company used the episode to sway British public opinion and sympathy in favour of the wars of aggression it intended to wage.
• Meanwhile, help came from Madras in the form of a strong naval force under the command of Robert Clive.
• Manik Chand, the Nawab’s officer in charge of Fort William, was bribed and he surrendered after a brief pretence of resistance.

Treaty of Alinagar (9 February 1757)

• Consequently, in February 1757, the Nawab had to make peace with the English and sign the humiliating Treaty of Alinagar.
• As per the treaty, the Nawab had to restore to the English their former privileges of trade, grant permission to fortify Calcutta and even pay compensation amount for the losses suffered by the English.
• In this way, Clive had regained Calcutta and even forced the Nawab to concede to all English demands. Still, the English were not satisfied. They had decided to replace the Nawab with Mir Jafar. With this in mind, they placed an impossible set of demands before the Nawab, thus making a war inevitable. Clive organised a web of intrigue with the leaders in the Nawab’s court.
  • Chief among these were:
    • Mir Jafar: the Mir Bakshi (Commander-in-Chief of the Nawab’s army)
    • Manik Chand: the Officer incharge of Calcutta
    • Amir Chand: a rich merchant
    • Jagat Seth: the biggest banker of Bengal
    • Khadim Khan: commanded a large number of the Nawab’s troops
• These disaffected nobles of Siraj’s court joined hands with the English to oust Siraj and install their protege, leading to the Plassey Conspiracy of 1757.

The Battle (23 June 1757)

• On 23 June 1757, both armies met at Plassey, 30 km south of Murshidabad. The English force comprised of 950 European infantry and 2100 Indian sepoys, while that of the Nawab comprised of 50,000 commanded by the treacherous Mir Jafar.
• Only a small group of Nawab’s soldiers fought bravely. They were led by Mir Madan and Mohan Lai. After Mir Madan was killed by a stray shot from the English side, Mir Jafar played upon the fears of the Nawab and advised him to retire from the battlefield, leaving the command in the hands of his generals. The trick was well played. Once the Nawab retired with 2,000 horsemen, a large part of the Nawab’s army led by Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh merely looked on, as Clive routed the rest of Nawab’s forces.
• As a result, the Nawab had to flee but was captured and put to death by an assassin, Mohammad Ali Beg, on the orders of Mir Jafar’s son, Miran.

Consequences of Battle of Plassey

Details

• Mir Jafar was proclaimed as Nawab of Bengal (he was promised the Nawabship by Clive even before the Battle of Plassey).
• Robert Clive was confirmed as the Governor of Bengal (Clive’s First Governorship: 1757-60).
• The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• It was also understood that British officials would no longer need to pay any taxes on their private trade.
• The Company received the zamindari of 24-Parganas near Calcutta.
• Mir Jafar paid a sum of Rs 17,700,000 to the Company as compensation for the attack on Calcutta.
• Mir Jafar paid out a sum of ₹50 lakh as gift or bribe to the Company’s officials, besides a large amount as personal present to Clive and compensation for the Company’s losses.
• All the French settlements in Bengal were surrendered to the English.

Significance of Battle of Plassey

Details

• The battle was hardly significant from the military point of view as the English army showed no military superiority. It was a mere skirmish, resulting in 65 casualties on the English side and 500 on the Nawab’s side. More than the might of the English, it was the treachery of the Nawab’s confidants that decided the fate of the battle of Plassey.
• However, the battle turned out to be of great historical significance because of the events that followed.
  • The British emerged as kingmakers in Bengal:
    • The British now appointed their man, Mir Jafar, as the new Nawab. Jafar was completely dependent on the English for maintenance of his position in Bengal.
    • Hence, an English force of 6,000 troops was stationed in Bengal for Nawab’s protection with the natural consequence that all real power passed into the Company’s hands and Mr. Watts, the British Resident at Murshidabad, began to wield considerable influence.
  • Transformation in position of the English Company:
    • The victory in Plassey brought about a great transformation in the position of the English Company in Bengal. Until now the English Company was just one of the European companies trading in Bengal.
    • After Plassey, the Company emerged supreme and established its monopoly over Bengal trade by marginalising the French and the Dutch Companies.
    • The English also emerged as powerful contenders in Bengal politics.
  • Vast resources of Bengal placed at British disposal:
    • The victory in the battle placed vast resources at the disposal of the British. The first instalment of wealth paid to the Company immediately after Plassey was paid in silver coins, carried in more than 100 boats. Bengal then was the most prosperous province of India—its manufactures were in huge demand not only in India but also in world outside.
    • Victory in Bengal played a decisive role in Anglo-French struggle. In fact, with the revenues of Bengal, the English were able to meet the cost of conquest of rest of the country.
    • The rich revenues of Bengal enabled the British to organise a strong army.
    • The rich resources of the Bengal were used to conquer the rest of India.
  • The Bengal plunder began to arrive in London and the effects appears to have been instantaneous, for all authorities agree that the the ‘Industrial Revolution‘ began with the year 1770 after Plassey was fought in 1757. 
  • The condition of the common of Bengal gradually deteriorated due to the weakness of the Nawab. Lawlessness and continuous economic exploitation of the servants of the company broke the backbone of Bengalis who once upon a time used to lead a prosperous life.
  • British built and trained an army with native Indian Sepoys who then fulfilled the ambition of further colonization. The British East India company also wanted to protect the rich colony of India for which it acquired buffer colonies in Singapore, Penang, Burma, Nepal, Malacca etc. The British advancement in Asia was also aided by superior military and modern artillery and Navy. 
• Thus, the ‘Plassey Revolution’ as it is called, proved to be a battle with far-reaching consequences. The British victory in Piassey marked the beginning of British conquest of Bengal and later of India. It helped the Company and its servants to amass unimaginable wealth at the cost of the people of Bengal.

Consequences of Battle of Buxar

Details

• Buxar sealed the fate of the Bengal Nawabs and, for all practical purposes, power was transferred into the hands of the English Company.
• Mir Jafar was brought back to the throne of Bengal, this time on much harsher terms.
  • Mir Jafar agreed to hand over the districts of Midnapore, Burdwan and Chittagong to the English and permitted them duty free trade in Bengal (with the exception of 2% duty on salt).
  • He and his successors had to pay 5 lakh per month to the English Company, allow Company’s intervention in matters of appointments and reduce military establishments.
• Mir Jafar died shortly thereafter and his minor son, Najim-ud-Daulah was appointed as Nawab.
• Clive was resent as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bengal (Clive’s Second governorship: 1765-67). First and foremost, he took up the tasks of defining relations with the defeated powers and showed considerable practical wisdom in his settlements with them.

Settlement with Nawab of Awadh

Clive went to Awadh, met Shuja-ud-Daula at Allahabad and concluded with him the First Treaty of Allahabad (16 August 1765). As per the treaty,

• The Nawab of Awadh was made to pay a war indemnity of Rs 50 lakh to the Company.
• The Nawab was made to surrender Allahabad and Kora to Emperor Shah Alam II and confirm Balwant Singh, the zamindar of Banaras, to his estate.
• The Nawab was made to enter an offensive and defensive treaty (subsidiary alliance) with the Company. The Company promised to support the Nawab against an outside attack, provided he paid for the services of the troops. In this way, the Nawab of Awadh became dependent on the Company.
  • (In this way, Clive did not annex Awadh since annexing would have placed the Company under an obligation to protect extensive land frontier, which was vulnerable to attack by the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas. Instead, Clive converted Awadh into a friendly buffer state between the British territories in Bengal and the Maratha possessions).

Settlement with Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II

Clive concluded the Second Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765) with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. As per the treaty:

• The Emperor was taken into Company’s protection and given the districts of Kora and Allahabad ceded by Awadh (the Emperor resided in the fort of Allahabad for 6 years as a virtual prisoner of the English).
• In return, the Emperor issued a farman dated 12 August 1765 granting to the Company the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in return for the Company making an annual payment of Rs 26 lakh to him and providing for the expenses of the Nizamat of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa which was fixed at Rs 53 lakh.
  • (In this way, the farman legalised the Company’s gain in Bengal; it established a ‘dual system’ in Bengal in theory and converted the Emperor into a useful ‘rubber stamp’ of the Company).

Settlement with Nawab of Bengal

After the death of Mir Jafar, Najm-ud- Daulah was allowed to

succeed his father (February 1765) on the following conditions:

• The Nawab would surrender Defence and Foreign Affairs (both were nizamat functions) into the hands of the Company and civil administration into the hands of a Naib-Subahdar nominated by the Company and not removable without their consent (Clearly, the Company gained Diwani from the emperor and nizamat functions from the Nawab of Bengal.
  • In this way, the infamous dual system was ‘dual’ only in theory; while in practice the Company acquired all real power in Bengal. The Nawab lost all independent military or financial power and became a mere figurehead).

Dual System of Administration (Dual/double governance or Dyarchy)

Details

• In theory, Dual System meant the system of governance where the Company exercised Diwani functions (revenue collection) while the Nawab of Bengal exercised the Nizamat functions (defence, law and order and administration of justice).
• However, Najm-ud-Daulah was allowed to succeed as Nawab of Bengal only on the condition that he surrendered the Nizamat functions. Hence, in reality, the ‘dual system’ was only a sham as it was the Company that exercised all political power and merely used the Nawab and his administration as an instrument for its purposes.
• Thus, in practice, the dual system referred to the system of government whereby the Company acquired all real power while the ‘responsibility’ for administration rested on the shoulders of the Nawab. A fatal divorce of power from responsibility was inherent in this dual system.
  • The advantage of this system was that the British had power without responsibility. This had adverse consequences for the people of Bengal, as neither the Company nor the Nawab cared for their welfare. In the words of Clive himself, ‘Such a scene of anarchy, confusion, bribery, corruption and extortion was never seen or heard of in any country but Bengal’.
  • Thus, began the drain of wealth from Bengal. The Company stopped sending money from England to buy Indian goods. These goods were now purchased from the revenues of Bengal and sold abroad.
  • This drain of wealth greatly impoverished Bengal and was a major factor responsible for the terrible Bengal famine of 1770. Though the famine was caused by failure of rains, its devastating effects were accentuated by the Company’s policies.
  • The Company had to pay a handsome sum per year to the British Government as its share of the rich prize.

Why did Clive go for Dual System?

• Clive wanted to maintain Nawab as a shadow authority which the Company should seem to venerate. Open assumption of authority would have shown the true colours of the Company and might have resulted in uniting Indian princes against it.
• The Company did not wish to generate England’s interest regarding the functioning of the Company. It wanted to avoid interference of the British Parliament.
• It was also doubtful whether other European companies would acknowledge the Company’s subahship and pay duties that they paid to Nawabs of Bengal.
• Open assumption of political power would have attracted the attention of other European powers.
• The Company did not have adequate personnel to run the administration of Bengal.
• Directors of the Company were more interested in financial and commercial gains rather than territorial acquisitions. A dual system would serve the Company’s interests well.
• As a result of the system of Dual Government, the English Company acquired real power without any responsibility while the position of Nawab was virtually reduced to a cipher.

Adverse Impact of Dual System

• The dual system proved to be a total failure and had the following evil effects:
  • It led to complete breakdown of administration and law and order in Bengal. While the Nawab had no real power to enforce law, the Company also shunned all responsibility in this regard.
  • Bengal, once the granary of India, now faced the specter of famines. The Company appointed two Naib-Diwans, Mohammad Reza Khan and Raja Sitab Roy for Bengal and Bihar respectively, and directed them to collect as high revenue as possible (Reza Khan was also the Naib-Nazim). The Bengal peasant faced some of the worst exactions by the revenue officials and many of them ran away into the jungles or simply joined the ranks of the robbers. Clearly, the Company’s policies in Bengal greatly contributed to the terrible Bengal famine of 1770.
  • Dual government led to disruption of trade and commerce in Bengal. The Company’s merchants exercised strict monopoly and would undersell the Indian merchants in Bengal, pushing many of them into destitution and beggary.
  • It also ruined indigenous industry and skill. The Company used its political power to compel the cotton weavers of Bengal to buy raw material from and sell woven cloth to the Company exclusively at arbitrary prices. The Company also encouraged the industries selectively. For instance, as per an order of 1769, the Company was asked to encourage production of raw silk but discourage woven silk fabrics as they competed with silk fabrics manufactured in England. Even the Company’s factories where raw silk was produced, the silk winders were compelled to work under oppressive conditions; many even cut-off their thumbs to escape the miseries of factory life.
  • The Company’s avaricious policies in Bengal vitiated the entire atmosphere and led to an overall moral ‘degradation and decay of Bengal society. The Indian servants of the Company followed the example of their corrupt masters. The peasants and artisans, unsure of receiving fair price for their labour, lost incentive for good work.

Battle of Plassey

Causes

Significance

– Misuse of trade privileges by the Company officials.

– Attack on the sovereignty of the Nawab by fortification of Calcutta by the Company.

– Asylum to political fugitives by the Company.

– Blocal hole tragedy

– The Company was on the offensive and wanted to replace the Nawab and Mir Jafar.

– It made the British masters of Bengal.

– The revenues of Bengal enabled the Company to organise a strong army.

– The control of Bengal’s revenue and monopoly over its trade strengthened the financial position of the company.

– It helped the Company’s servants amass untold wealth.

– Indian industries declined rapidly after this Battle.

– After the battle began a process culminated in Anglicisation of India.

Battle of Buxar

Causes

Significance

– Failure of Mir Qasim to fulfil the Company’s financial demand.

– The Nawab-Company tussle over transit and trade duty.

– Outbreak of series of wars between the English and Mir Qasim in 1763.

– It demonstrated superiority of English Army.

– The Company ceased to be a trading company and became a political power.

– The British defeated both the Nawab and the Mughal Emperor.

– It made the English contenders for the supremacy of the whole country.

– It confirmed the decision of Plassey.

Dual Government

Reasons

Impact

– Company’s reluctance to take the  responsibility of administration of Bengal.

– Company only wanted to make good of its revenue possessions.

– Company’s unwillingness to recognise the transformation in its role from a trading company to a ruling power.

– Led to an administrative breakdown in Bengal.

– Neither the company nor the Nawab cared for the administration and public welfare.

– Company’s servants rack-rented the people.

British Quest for Commercial Dominance

• Commercial gain was the primary reason for British intervention in the Mysore and Maratha states. The government of Britain needed finance and favoured a more aggressive expansionist policy to protect its commercial interest.
• The existing rivalry among the local powers and the volatile political situation in the region provided a favourable ground for political intervention by the British.
• The British fought several wars against the local rulers. Ultimately, they defeated Mysore and the Marathas, laying the foundation of British rule in India.
• Other reasons for British interventions in Mysore:
  • Haidar and Tipu’s control over the trade of the Malabar coast was a threat to the British trade.
  • Mysore rulers were seen as a threat to the British control over Madras.
  • Mysore rulers’ alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British dominance in this
    region.
  • After 1784, there was a sudden increase in the cotton trade between the English EIC and China through Bombay from Gujarat. This prompted the British authorities to take a more active role in the region.

Arguments by the British to Legitimise the Conquest

• The British contended that many Indian rulers of their time were oppressive leaders who had seized power from legitimate dynasties and rightful owners. Therefore, these rulers could be replaced to restore the Indian people to their full religious and civil rights.
  • In the case of Mysore, the British argued that their policy aimed to restore the Hindu Wodeyar house, which Haidar Ali overthrew.
• Such an argument was born more out of the willingness to legitimise their political intervention in India, rather than anything else.

Rise of Haider Ali

Details

• When Krishnaraja died, Haider Ali became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761, Mysore had territorial threats from both the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• By the time Haider Ali took complete control of Mysore, he had been able to successfully drive out Marathas from Bangalore where they had laid a siege (1758).
• In 1761, in the Battle of Panipat, the Marathas got defeated and due to this they drew their forces from Mysore. Haider Ali was able to increase his influence after this battle. He established a modern arsenal in Dindigul in 1755 with the help of French experts. In 1761 he overthrew Nanjaraj and established his authority over the Mysore state. He extended full control over the rebellious poligars (zamindars) and conquered the territories of Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar.
• After capturing the throne of Mysore, Haider Ali looked down over the Deccan for expansion of territories. The aggressive designs of Haidar alarmed the English, the Marathas and the Nizam who thus declared him as their common enemy.
• This tripartite struggle for power between English, the Marathas and the Nizam against Mysore opened the front for the first Anglo Mysore War.

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)

Details

• Hyder Ali’s friendship with the French is considered as one reason for the Anglo-Mysore war. Another important reason was the Mysore border dispute between the Madras government and the Nawab of Carnatic.
• The immediate context for war was provided by the rivalry over control of Northern Circars. The
  English Company was seeking an overland connection between its territories in Madras and Bengal, and Northern Circars (held by the French until 1758) was a series of coastal territories that lay in between.
• Robert Clive demanded access to this area from the Nizam of Hyderabad (a French protege), which the Nizam initially rejected. Thereafter, Robert Clive took his application to Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II who in 1765 issued a decree granting the rights of that territory to Clive.
• In 1766, the English Company began expanding in the Northern Circars and the Nizam
  objected and considered going to war with the English, but later signed a treaty with the Company in view of his poor financial condition. As per this treaty, the Company got the Northern Circars and in return promised to give military support to the Nizam in his endeavours against Hyder Ali.
• At the same time, the Nizam had formed an alliance with the Marathas as both felt threatened by the expansionist attitude of Hyder.
• Hyder himself was annoyed with the English as they had set up a fortified outpost at Vellore.
• In this way, the Marathas, the Nizam and the English entered into tripartite treaty against Hyder
  Ali and attacked Mysore in 1766.
• But Hyder successfully persuaded the Nizam and the Marathas to join hands with him against the English. He then launched an attack against the Company and reached up to the gates of Madras. He forced the Madras Council to sign peace on his terms in April 1769, known as the Treaty of Madras.

Treaty of Madras

• Signed in April 1769. As per the Treaty of Madras:
  • (a) Both the Parties returned the areas won by each other.
  • (b) The District of Arcot was given to Nawab of Arcot.
  • (c) British & Haider Ali promised that they would support each other if there is any foreign invasion.

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

Details

• The British had no intention of sticking to the treaty of Madras. When Marathas invaded Hyder’s territory in 1771, the English Company did not come to his help. So, it was now a question of time before a second round of war between the Company and the Mysore state started.
• On the other hand, the French proved more helpful to Hyder with his military demands as saltpeter, lead, guns and other military hardware naturally found their way into Mysore through Mahe (a French settlement on the Malabar coast within Hyder’s jurisdiction).
• Further, the American War of Independence had broken out in 1775 and the French help to American colonists made Governor-General Warren Hastings extremely anxious of Hyder’s relations with the French.
• Under these circumstances, the Company attempted to capture Mahe, which was a direct challenge to Hyder Ali. The English had also offended Hyder Ali when an English force trespassed on Hyder’s territory in order to take over Guntur in the Northern Circars.
• The English capture of Mahe provided the immediate pretext for the second Mysore war.
• Haider Ali defeated Colonel Baillie and captured Arcot in 1780. Haidar Ali inflicted defeat after defeat on the British armies in the Carnatic and forced them to surrender in larger numbers. He soon occupied almost the whole of the Carnatic.
• But once again, British arms and diplomacy saved the day. They detached both Maratha and Nizam from Haider’s side.
  • Warren Hastings bribed the Nizam with the cession of the Guntur district and gained his withdrawal from the anti-British alliance.
  • Through the Treaty of Salbai (1782), the British made peace with the Marathas, which allowed them to free up a large portion of their army to be used against Mysore.
  • Consequently, Haider was isolated without any alliance.
• In July 1781, the English army under Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali at Porto-Novo. The French help under Admiral Baillie de Suffren reached India in 1782. Skirmishes continued but later in December 1782, Hyder died of cancer during the course of the second Mysore war.
• Tipu, son and successor of Hyder, continued the war against the British. However, in 1783, the
  American War of Independence ended. Thereafter, Suffren sailed back for Europe leaving Tipu to fight his own battles. The Madras government also desired peace due to lack of resource and uncertainty of the Maratha attitude. Tipu also needed time to strengthen his own administration. Thus, the war ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784) signed on the basis of mutual restitution of each others territories.
  • This was the last British treaty with an Indian ruler on an equal footing.

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)

Details

• The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore, exposed English weaknesses and increased Tipu’s strength. Like his father he wanted to eliminate the English from India. His other designs were to wreak vengeance on the Nizam and on the Marathas as they had betrayed his father during the hour of need.
• The chief causes for the Third Mysore War were:
  • Rise of Tipu Sultan: Tipu Sultan strengthened his position by undertaking various internal reforms. This caused worries to the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas.
  • Moreover, Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France sending envoys to those countries.
  • He also expanded his territories at the cost of his neighbours, particularly the Raja of Travancore, who was an ally of the British.
  • Tipu did not honour the article regarding transfer of the prisoners contained in Mangalore Treaty of 1784 and kept the British prisoners with him. This was one of the reasons of the hostility.
  • In 1790, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas against Tipu.
• The immediate reason of the war which commenced in 1790 was that the local Dharamaraja of Travancore made some fortifications into the territories which were claimed by Tipu. Travancore Raja also purchased two forts (Jaikottai and Cranganore) from the Dutch in Cochin, and since Cochin was a tributary state of Mysore, Tipu considered this as a violation of his sovereign rights. Thus, in April 1790, Tipu attacked Travancore.
  • Travancore was an ally of the British. So when Tipu attacked Travancore, the British attacked Tipu.
• War broke out in May 1790 between the English and Tipu. It was fought in three phases.
• The first phase commenced when Medows, the Governor of Madras, initially directed the campaign to invade Mysore but Tipu’s rapid movements halted the progress of the English troops and inflicted heavy losses on them. In the meantime, Cornwallis himself assumed command in December 1790.
• This was the beginning of the second phase of the war. Marching from Vellore, he captured Bangalore in March 1791, but Tipu’s brilliant strategies prolonged the war and Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Mangalore due to lack of provisions.
• The third phase of the war began when timely aid from the Marathas with plenty of provisions helped him to resume his campaign and marched against Srirangapattinam again. This time Tipu was at a disadvantage. Swiftly the English forces occupied the hill forts near Srirangapattinam and seized it in February 1792. Tipu Sultan concluded the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the British.
• The terms of the Treaty of Srirangapattinam:
  • Tipu had to surrender half of his territory to the Company and its allies. While the Company acquired Baramahal, Dindigul and Malabar, the Marathas gained territory on the Tungabhadra side and the Nizam acquired territories from the Krishna to beyond the Pennar.
  • Tipu was also required to pay war indemnity of Rs 3 crore, but as he was unable to pay this sum immediately, his two sons were kept as prisoners with Cornwallis.
  • Both sides agreed to release the prisoners of war.
• After Cornwallis, Sir John Shore became the Governor-General but he adopted the policy of nonintervention towards Mysore. For this reason, John Shore is known as the father of the policy of non-intervention. Later, Sir John Lawrence also adopted the policy of non-interference towards Afghanistan.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798-99)

Details

• Tipu fulfilled all the terms of the Treaty of Seringapatam and got his sons released. He decided to avenge his humiliating defeat and the terms put forth by the Treaty of Seringapatam. He aimed at making Mysore a strong state. Tipu worked continuously to secure help to fight British imperialism. He took efforts to seek the help of the France, Arabia, Kabul and Turkey. He corresponded with the Revolutionary French Government in July 1798.
• Lord Wellesley sailed for India in 1797, probably the toughest year in English history when England was struggling for its survival against France all over the world. Napoleon Bonaparte had conquered Egypt and Syria and he now turned towards India. In 1801, he made an alliance with Czar Paul of Russia and drew up a serious plan to invade India via Herat and Kandahar. The English well realised the consequences of a defeat at the hands of Napoleon; it would mean an end to its commerce that had brought it immense financial and political gains. To us, Napoleons plans may appear fanciful today but the contemporaries did not regard them as such. To them they posed a very real danger and Wellesley could ill afford to take any risks.
• In Napoleons plans, Tipu Sultan of Mysore saw the right opportunity to oust the English from India. He entered into negotiations with the French and started making elaborate preparations for war with the Company. At Srirangapattinam, a Jacobian Club was started. He planted a ‘flag of Liberty’ at Seringapatam, styled himself ‘Citizen Tipu’. He employed the French Commandant Monsieur Raymond and raised a corps of 14,000 men with his help.
• Wellesley concluded that it was urgently needed to bring the Indian states under the English sphere of influence and tame not only the actual allies but even the potential allies of France. For this purpose, he tried to convert as many Indian states into the subsidiary allies of the Company, either by persuasion or by force.
• As a part of his strategy, Wellesley tried to revive the Triple Alliance of 1790 with the Marathas. Though his proposal was not accepted by the Marathas, they promised to remain neutral. However, a Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam was concluded by the British and as a consequence, the French force at Hyderabad was disbanded.
• After he successfully forced the treaty of subsidiary alliance upon the Nizam, he turned his attention to Tipu Sultan. Wellesley estimated that a French invasion via the Red Sea could only be possible after mid-1799 and he decided to deal with Tipu before that time. After Tipu refused all offers of the Governor-General for acceptance of the subsidiary alliance, war began in February 1799. The war was short and decisive. As planned, the British Bombay army invaded Mysore from the west. The Madras army, forced Tipu to retreat to his capital Srirangapattinam.
• The English Company won a decisive victory at the Battle of Seringapatam (1799). Tipu was killed during the defence of the city, before French help could reach him. He died a hero’s death defending his capital.
• Much of the remaining Mysorean territory was annexed by the Company, the Nizam and the Marathas, giving the Company the command over the sea coast of the Lower Peninsula. Any French mischief from the Malabar Coast was now rendered impossible. The remaining core, around Mysore and Seringapatam, was restored to the minor Indian prince, two-year-old Krishnaraja of the Wadiyar Dynasty, whose forefathers had been the actual rulers before Hyder Ali became the de facto ruler. A special Treaty of Subsidiary Alliance was imposed on the Wadiyar King and Mysore virtually became a dependency of the British. The Wadiyars ruled the remnant state of Mysore until 1947, when it joined the Union of India. Tipu’s family members were imprisoned in Vellore and his two sons pensioned.
  • After the success in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war, Wellesley arrogantly pronounced, ‘Now the kingdom of the east is under our feet’.

Significance of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

• The rule of Tipu’s dynasty came to an end, and the Wodeyars were restored to Mysore Kingdom.
• Mysore became the dependency of the English.
• Tipu had used the iron cased rockets in the Third and Fourth Mysore wars. It led the British to develop their own versions of the Rockets.
• It eliminated the French threat to British Supremacy in India.

Mysore under the British

• In 1799, by the treaty of Subsidiary Alliance, Mysore became the complete dependency of the
  Company.
• In 1831, William Bentinck took control of Mysore on grounds of misgovernance.
• In 1881, Lord Ripon restored the kingdom to its ruler.

Anglo-Mysore Wars

Associated Treaties

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)

Treaty of Madras (1769)

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

Treaty of Mangalore (1784)

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)

Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

Details

• The first Maratha war was a result of the excessive ambition of the English, accentuated by the internal strife of the Marathas. While the Bengal and Madras governments had increased their influence over Awadh and Carnatic respectively, the Bombay government had no such political achievement to its credit due to the presence of the powerful Maratha confederacy in the area and it had begun to feel somewhat belittled. It now cast its longing eyes upon the Maratha territories, particularly the ports of Salsette and Bassein and hoped to gain political influence at the Poona Court.
• The dispute over succession to the Peshwaship after the death of the Peshwa Madhav Rao gave the English the much-needed opportunity to intervene in the Maratha affairs.
• Thus, out of frustration, Raghunath Rao went over to the British and tried to capture power with their help. This was the immediate background of the first Anglo-Maratha war. The war began with the Treaty of Surat and ended with the Treaty of Salbai.
  • In Raghunath Rao, the Bombay government saw a plaint and a tool and hoped to set up in Maharashtra the type of dual government as Clive had done in Bengal.

Treaty of Surat (7 March 1775)

• This treaty was signed between Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) and the British Government at Bombay on 7 March 1775. There were 16 conditions in all in the treaty.
• As per the treaty it was decided that the British would help Raghunath Rao in becoming the Peshwa by sending 2500 soldiers.
• In return, Raghoba would cede territories of Salsette and Bassein and revenues from Surat and Bharoch to the British.

• In accordance with the Treaty of Surat, a British army reached Surat led by Colonel Keating. On 18 May 1775, at Adas (Battle of Adas) there took place a terrible battle between the English and the Maratha armies. In this battle, though the Marathas were defeated, they retained control over Poona.

Treaty of Purandar (1 March 1776)

• When a copy of the Treaty of Surat reached the superior British Government in Bengal, i.e. the Calcutta Council, it condemned the treaty as unjust and unauthorised.
• Further, Warren Hastings sent Colonel Upton to Poona Darbar and signed the treaty of Purandar. Thus, the Treaty of Purandar was signed between the British Government at Calcutta and Poona Court (Poona Darbar) and it stated the following:
  • The Treaty of Surat was annulled.
  • The British left the side of Raghoba and it was decided that Raghoba will be given a monthly pension of Rs 25,000 by Peshwa government and he will go to Gujarat and reside there in Kopar village.

• However, the Treaty of Purandar was not implemented due to a sudden turn of events. The American War of Independence had broken out in 1775 and in 1778 France joined on the American side against England. At the same time, a French adventurer, Chevalier de St. Lubin, reached Poona.
• This greatly alarmed Warren Hastings, who immediately scrapped the Treaty of Purandar, sent a large force to reinforce the Bombay government and sanctioned operations against the Marathas. Thus, the Bombay Government resumed the war and sent an army towards Poona under Colonel Egerton (who was later replaced by Colonel Cockburn).
• The English and the Maratha armies met on the outskirts of Poona. The Maratha army was led by the brilliant General Mahadji Shinde. He lured the English army into valleys of the Western Ghats near Talegaon (Battle of Talegaon, 9 January 1779) and trapped them from all sides. The Marathas also used the ‘scorched earth policy’, burning farmlands and poisoning wells.
  • The English were forced to retreat to a village named Wadgaon.
• Finally, by mid-January 1779, the English surrendered and the Bombay Government was forced to sign a humiliating treaty with Poona Darbar called the Treaty of Wadgaon.

Treaty of Wadgaon (1779)

• As per this treaty, it was decided that the Bombay Government would return all territory conquered by it after 1773 and the Scindias will get a part of the revenue from Bharoch.

• Hastings refused to accept this humiliating Treaty of Wadgaon. He quickly sent an army from Bengal led by Colonel Goddard which soon captured Ahmedabad and Vasai. But this British army got defeated by the Marathas in Poona.
• Meanwhile, Hastings sent another detachment from Bengal led by Colonel Popham which captured Gwalior on 3 August 1781. General Camac also defeated Scindia in the Battle of Sipri (modern day Shivpur).
• Mahadji Scindia aspired to become the leader of the Maratha confederacy, and he therefore tried to strike a treaty with the British. Subsequently, an understanding was struck between Scindia and the English Company as the latter promised to allow him to carry out his designs in and around Delhi. Finally, the Treaty of Salbai was signed between the British and the Poona Government.

Treaty of Salbai (Gwalior District, 1782)

• This treaty was signed between the British and the Poona Government with the mediation of Mahadji Scindia.
• The treaty of Salbai was signed on the basis of mutual restitution of each other’s territories or ‘status quo ante helium’.
• The main provisions of this treaty were:
  • Madhav Narayan Rao will be accepted as Peshwa.
  • British will give up the cause of Raghoba and he be given yearly pension of Rs 3.5 lacs.
  • The Company gave up Bassein and other territories captured since the Treaty of Purandar, but retained Salsette and the Elephanta Island.
  • Scindia got back the entire territory on the west of Yamuna.

• In this way, the British attempt to gain supremacy in the Maratha state proved premature. The First Anglo-Maratha War was drawn. Both sides had a taste of each other’s strengths which ensured mutual respect and peace for the next 20 years. It also gave the British the needed time to concentrate on other fronts specially Mysore.

Significance of the Treaty of Salbai

• The Treaty of Salbai gave the British twenty years of peace with the Marathas, the strongest Indian power of the day. The British utilised this period to consolidate their rule over the Bengal Presidency.
• The Treaty saved the British from the combined opposition of Indian powers, as the British also had conflicts with major regional powers simultaneously.
• It allowed the British to exert pressure on Mysore as the Marathas promised to help them recover their territories from Haidar All.
• The British succeeded in dividing the Indian powers.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05)

Details

• After the death of Tipu Sultan (1799), Marathas were the only major Indian power left outside British control.
• Lord Wellesley (Richard Wellesley) now turned his attention towards Marathas and began aggressive interference in their internal affairs.
• Richard Wellesley repeatedly offered a subsidiary alliance to the Peshwa and Sindhia, but Nana
  Phadnis, who had kept the Maratha confederacy together for the last 30 years, refused to fall into the trap.
• The death of Nana Phadanvis in 1800 allowed the British to intervene in Maratha’s internal conflicts.
• The Maratha chiefs were engaged in a bitter conflict, with Yashwant Rao Holkar on one side and Daulat Rao Sindhia and Peshwa Baji Rao II on the other.
• On 25 October 1802, Holkar defeated the combined armies of the Peshwa and Sindhia.
• The cowardly Peshwa Baji Rao II rushed into the arms of the English and, on 31 December 1802, signed the Treaty of Bassein. By signing the Treaty of Bassein, Peshwa entered a Subsidiary alliance.

Treaty of Bassein (1802)

• The Company agreed to give the Peshwa a subsidiary force of six thousand regular Native Infantry.
• The Peshwa surrendered to the Company, a territory yielding an annual revenue of 26 lakhs of rupees.
• The Company obtained control over the Peshwa’s foreign relations and was to act as arbitrator in his disputes with the Nizam and Gaikwad.
• The Peshwa agreed not to employ Europeans without the British Government’s permission.

Scindia and Bhosale

• • In this way, the Peshwa, i.e. the head of the Maratha confederacy, lost his independent authority and eventually the other Maratha chiefs were also reduced to a similar position of subordination to the Company. This affected the patriotic feelings of other Maratha chiefs and provoked the Second Anglo-Maratha War that began the breakup of the Maratha confederacy.
  • Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghuji Bhonsle immediately formed an alliance against the English. They tried to include Yashwant Rao Holkar but could not succeed. Gaekwad remained neutral. Thus even in time of national danger, the Maratha chiefs did not unite.
  • The English decided to attack all Maratha regions. The war was fought in two main centres – in Deccan under Arthur Wellesley and in North India under General Lake. It was also fought in three sub-centres namely – Gujarat, Bundelkhand and Orissa.
  • In the Deccan, Wellesley defeated the combined armies of Scindia and Bhonsle in the Battle of Assaye (near Aurangabad, September 1803) and the Battle of Argaon (near Burhanpur, November 1803).
  • In the north, Lord Lake defeated Daulat Rao Scindia in the Battle of Delhi (September 1803) and the combined armies of Scindia and Bhonsle in the Battle of Laswari (near Alwar, November 1803). General Lake captured Aligarh, Delhi and Agra.
    • It is noteworthy that now the control of Delhi passed from the Marathas into British hands and once again the blind Mughal ruler, Shah Alam II, became a pensioner of the Company (He had first become a pensioner of the Company after his defeat in the Battle of Buxar in 1764).
  • In this way, Scindia and Bhonsle faced total defeat within five months and had to sign two separate treaties with the English Company.
    • Treaty of Deogaon (17 December 1803):
      • This treaty of subsidiary alliance was signed between Raghuji Bhonsle and the Company.
      • As per this treaty, Bhonsle lost to the English Company the territories of Balasore, Cuttack and entire kingdom west to the Wardha River.
      • Bhonsle agreed to keep a British Resident in Nagpur.
        • M Elphinstone was sent for this post.
• Treaty of Surji-Arjangaon (30 December 1803):

• • • This treaty was signed between Scindia and the Company.
    • As per this treaty, he gave the Company a large part of his kingdom including the territory between the Ganga and the Yamuna.
    • He agreed to keep a British Resident Sir John Malcolm is his court.
    • Mughal emperor Shah Alam II came under British protection
  • The Treaty of Burhanpur was signed on 27 February 1804, in which Scindia agreed to enter into a subsidiary alliance with the British.

War with Yashwant Rao Holkar

• Until now Holkar had kept himself away from the war, but in April 1804, war between him and the British began.
• Holkar defeated Colonel Monson near Kota and advanced towards Delhi. But Delhi was successfully defended by local resident there, Lt. Colonel Octor Loni.
• One detachment of Holkar’s army was defeated in the Battle of Ding, while another detachment which was being led by Holkar himself was defeated by General Lake. Holkar fled to Amritsar and asked the Sikhs for help. But the Sikhs refused. Now he began considering peace with the British.
• At the same time, the shareholders of the EIC felt that continuous wars were proving costly. Company’s directors felt that it was time to stop expansion. Similarly, the home government in Britain was facing financial crunch at a time when Napoleon was reemerging as a threat in Europe.
• Thus Wellesley was recalled and Sir George Barlow was sent to India who made peace with Holkar. In this way, expansion under Wellesley was checked just before the end, yet the Company had now emerged as the supreme power in India.

Treaty of Rajpurghat (24 December 1805)

• This treaty was signed between Yashwant Rao Holkar and the English Company.
• As per this treaty, Holkar agreed to renounce all claims to the north of the River Chambal and the Bundi hills (Bundelkhand) but at the same time, he got back the major part of his lost kingdom.
• The English also promised not to disturb Holkar’s possessions in Mewar and Malwa.
• The Treaty of Rajpurghat marked the end of the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19)

Details

• • The third and final phase of Anglo-Maratha war started with the arrival of British Governor-General Lord Hastings. He tried to establish the supremacy of English East India Company in India and resumed the threads of aggressive policy abandoned in 1805 with the recall of Wellesley.
  • The breathing space that the Marathas had got since 1805 was not utilised by consolidating their power but wasted in mutual conflicts. Hastings’ main objective now was to destroy the independence of the three Maratha rulers – the Bhonsle, the Scindia and the Holkar.
  • The Bhonsle Raja of Berar proved to be the weakest link of the three Maratha chiefs. After the death of Raghuji Bhonsle on 22 March 1816, his son Parsoji’s succession to the gaddi was challenged by Parsojis cousin, Appa Sahib also known as Mudhoji II Bhonsle. The British Resident Jenkins saw in this the right opportunity to impose a subsidiary alliance on the state. Appa Sahib, in his keenness to gain the Company’s support, offered very favourable terms to the Company.
• Treaty of Nagpur (Subsidiary Alliance, 27 May 1816): Accordingly, on 27 May 1816, the treaty of Nagpur was signed between Appa Sahib and the English Company and subsidiary force was stationed at Nagpur.
• Peshwa Baji Rao II had earlier signed the Treaty of Bassein (December 1802) but with time, he had begun to feel strangulated and began to show signs of independence. He began to reassert his authority over the Gaekwad of Baroda, a feudatory of the English, and laid claim over the tribute of Kathiawar and Baroda. The Baroda sent its Chief Minister Gangadhar Shastri to negotiate with the Peshwa but the negotiations failed and Shastri was killed on his way back at Nasik at the instance of Trimbakji, the Chief Minister of Peshwa. The British Resident Elphinstone demanded the surrender of Trimbakji. While the Peshwa vacillated, the English Company prepared for war and its troops surrounded Poona. The Peshwa reluctantly surrendered and accepted the new treaty of Poona.
• Treaty of Poona (Subsidiary Alliance, 13 June 1817): As per this treaty, among other things, the Peshwa accepted the dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy, a milestone in the establishment of British Paramountcy in India. He also gave up some important forts to the Company including Konkan and ceded Bundelkhand, Malwa and Hindustan.

• • Daulat Rao Scindia was asked by Lord Hastings, who had arrived with a big force in September 1817, to either surrender or face war. Scindia surrendered and accepted a subsidiary alliance, yet it was a treaty of amity and friendship’ and Scindia continued to remain independent in many ways.
• Treaty of Gwalior (Subsidiary Alliance, 5 November 1817): Daulat Rao Scindia was also forced by the English to sign the Treaty of Gwalior. As per this treaty, he pledged to help the Company in suppressing the Pindaris, the irregular forces of the Marathas.

• • • Thus the Third Maratha War began as a campaign against the Pindaris. The British troops were led by Lord Hastings supported by a force under General Thomas Hislop.
• Though the Maratha chiefs had been humbled, they had not yet reconciled with the loss of their independence, and they rose once again under the leadership of the Peshwa. Peshwa’s forces supported by those of Bhonsle (Mudhoji II Bhonsle, also known as Appa Sahib of Nagpur) and Holkar (Malhar Rao Holkar II of Indore) rose against the EIC. On 5 November 1817, the Peshwa set ablaze the British residency of Poona and attacked the British camp at Khadki. But the Peshwa was defeated at Khadki (also known as Kirkee or Ganesh Khind, 5 November), Bhonsle was defeated at Sitabaldi hills (26 November) and Holkar was defeated at Mehidpur (21 December 1817).
• Holkar and the Treaty of Mandsaur (Subsidiary Alliance, 6 January 1818):

• • Malhar Rao Holkar II of Indore was forced to sign the Treaty of Mandsaur and now a British Resident was placed in Indore.
  • Holkar had to surrender all his territories south of the Narmada including Khandesh.
  • He also renounced his claim over the Rajput states (later Scindia also ceded Ajmer and the Rajputana states which were under the control of Scindia and Holkar for last several decades now came under British control).
  • Since the Holkar was only 11 years old, Tantia Jog was appointed as the Chief Minister. In this way, Holkar became the last Maratha chief to sign a subsidiary alliance with the British.
• After the defeat at Khadki, Peshwa fought two more battles with the British— Battle of Koregaon (1 January 1818) and the Battle of Ashti (20 February 1818). He was defeated in both the battles and finally surrendered in front of Sir John Malcolm. In this way, the entire Maratha force was routed by superior military power of the EIC.
• Hastings decided to get rid of both—the Peshwa and the Peshwaship. Hence, the Peshwa was dethroned, pensioned off and ordered to spend his last days in Bithoor near Kanpur. His kingdom was brought under British control and enlarged Presidency of Bombay was brought into existence.
  • To satisfy Maratha pride, a small kingdom Satara of was carved out of Peshwas kingdom and given to Pratap Singh, a direct descendant of Shivaji.
• Thus by 1818, the entire Indian subcontinent except Sind (now spelled Sindh) and Punjab had been brought under British control, directly or indirectly.

Important Points Related to Anglo Maratha war

Among the Marathas, Ahilyabai Holkar, Mahadji Scindia and Nana Phadnavis are remembered as able leaders of this period. But in general, the Maratha state was in a bad shape during these years. There was disagreement regarding the succession to the Peshwaship and Nana Phadnavis was in complete control of the Maratha affairs. Fed up by the dictatorial rule of Nana, the young Peshwa Madhav Rao Narayan committed suicide on 25 October 1795. Raghoba’s son Baji Rao II became the next Peshwa. On 13 March 1800, Nana Phadnavis died in Poona. And once again Poona Darbar became a centre of conspiracies.

Pratap Singh Bhosale

• Pratap Singh Bhosale was the eighth and last Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire from 1808 to 1819. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the British gave him a small kingdom of Satara, which he ruled until 1839.
• In 1839, Pratap Singh was dethroned and sent to Kashi and granted an allowance for his maintenance. He died in 1847.
• In 1839, Pratap Singh was replaced by his brother, Appa Saheb (Shahaji) by the British.
• Appa Saheb died without a natural heir in 1848. The British questioned the irregularity of his adoption and refused to recognise the succession. Under the doctrine of lapse, the British annexed the state of Satara to the Bombay Presidency.

Constant intrigue and warfare among the Indian states

• The frequent warfare and growing rivalry among the Indian states weakened the internal stability of the state and made it easy for foreigners to intervene in internal politics.
• In the Mysore and the Marathas, the British used the disputes between these two states to use one against the other to establish British hegemony over both states.

Lack of coordination and growing factionalism in the administration

• Administration based on personal favouritism and loyalty, and in accordance with caste and other social divisions, led to the emergence of various factions who were in opposition to each other. This proved to be fatal in a scenario where an external attack was possible.
• In the case of the Marathas:
  • The Maratha Chiefs in different regions, such as Sindhia, Bhonsle, Holkar, and Gaikwad, lost their energy in mutual fighting and intrigue.
  • The Maratha Chiefs tried to establish their independent authority, which weakened the central Maratha authority.

Failure of resource mobilisation

• The lack of resources was a major constraint for the Indian states to fight against the British, who were already in control of one of the most productive parts of the country, Bengal and had the backing of their home Government.

Pindari War (1817-18)

• The Maratha army consisted of:
  • Regular Force paid by the Marathas.
  • Pindaris: They were unpaid and instead relied entirely on the loot they plundered during wars.
• The Marathas, after accepting the Subsidiary Alliance system, disbanded the Pindaris.
• In 1812 and 1813, the Pindaris conducted successful plundering raids on Mirzapur and Surat, which were located in British-controlled areas. These raids not only ruined the finances but challenged the British Paramountcy.
• Ultimately, the British EIC, under the governorship of Lord Hasting, launched a campaign against the Pindaris. By 1818, most Pindari leaders surrendered, and their followers dispersed.

Anglo-Maratha Wars

Associated Treaties

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

Treaty of Surat (1775)

Treaty of Purandhar (1776)

Treaty of Salbai (1782)

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05)

Treaty of Bassein (1802)

Treaty of Surji-Arjunagaon (1803)

Treaty of Rajghat (1806)

Marathas

Treaties

Peshwa Baji Rao II

Treaty of Bassein (1802)

Bhonsle

Treaty of Deogaon (1803)

Scindia

Treaty of Surji-Arjunagaon (1803)

Treaty of Burhanpur (1804)

Yashwant Rao Holkar

Treaty of Rajghat (1806)

Threat of Foreign Invasion

• Napoleon Bonaparte, a French military commander, wanted to establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the British in their possessions. In particular, he was keen on joining the forces of Tipu Sultan and helping him drive the British out of India.
• Napoleon’s interest in India emerged around 1798 when he took the expedition to Egypt.
• In 1801, the Russian Tsar Paul I (Emperor of Russia) sent a secret proposition to Napoleon to carry out a joint invasion of India and drive out the English and the EIC. Napoleon was apprehensive of the Tsar’s suggestion and refused to join hands with him.
• In 1807, Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I signed the Treaty of Tilsit. They agreed to invade India through Turkey with Persia’s support.
• When the news of the Treaty of Tilsit reached the British through a spy, the British signed an Anglo-Persian treaty (1809) with the Persians. Under this treaty:
  • The Persian ruler agreed not to allow a foreign army to pass across their country to India.
  • In return, the British promised aid to Persia in case she came under attack by a foreign power.
• Anglo-Persian treaty ended the possibility of the French invasion.

Anglo-French Rivalry

• From 1740 to 1800, Anglo-French rivalry was primarily confined to south India and ended with the defeat of Tipu Sultan and his French connection (1799). After 1807, the Anglo-French conflict shifted to the North-west.
• After the French defeat in naval conflict, Napoleon planned to invade India via land route. Alarmed by the prospect, Lord Minto I immediately sent four diplomatic missions – Malcolm to Tehran, Elphinstone to Kabul, Charles Metcalfe to Lahore and Seton to Sindh. With the efforts of these diplomatic missions, friendly treaties were concluded with the respective governments to counter the French challenge.
• Thus, in 1809, the Treaty of Eternal Friendship was signed with the Amirs, who promised not to allow the French to settle in Sindh.
  • Under this treaty, both sides agreed to exclude the French from Sindh and to exchange agents at each other’s court.
• In 1820, the treaty was renewed to further exclude the Americans from Sindh. But soon, the commercial and navigational value of the Indus began to attract the attention of the Company’s authorities. Consequently, in 1832, William Bentinck sent Colonel Pottinger to Sindh to sign a new commercial treaty with the Amirs.
  • As per the treaty, the Amirs allowed a free passage to English travellers and merchants through Sindh and also allowed the use of Indus for commercial pursuits.
  • Later, Pottinger was stationed as the Company’s political agent in Sindh.

Anglo-Russian Rivalry

• However, Lord Auckland began to see Sindh from a larger perspective of defence for India from the Russian threat. To him, Sindh was a necessary prelude to the annexation of Afghanistan. Thus, Sindh was conquered to counter Russia. The commercial benefits from the Sindh River were also an attraction.
• Soon Ranjit Singh captured Rojhan, a town on the Sindh frontier, giving the Company a chance to offer protection to the Amirs. The Amirs had neither desired nor asked for foreign help, yet they were forced to sign a Subsidiary Treaty in 1839 and accept a British Resident at Hyderabad. The Amirs had virtually passed under British protection.
  • As per the treaty: A British subsidiary force was to be stationed in Sindh. The Amirs of Sindh were required to pay Rs 3 lakh annually for the maintenance of the Company’s troops.
• During the Afghan war (1839-42), the Amirs of Sindh found themselves saddled with the responsibility of helping the British forces. Parts of their territory like Shikarpur, Bukkar and Karachi were taken away in gross violation of the Treaty of Perpetual Friendship and they also had to contribute a large amount of money in order to maintain troops in their midst whom they did not want. The independent position of the Amirs was gone forever.
• In 1842, Lord Ellenborough succeeded Auckland as Governor-General and proved to be equally unscrupulous in his dealings with the Amirs. He was eager to find a pretext for the annexation of Sindh and in doing so, regain the English prestige which had suffered during the First Afghan war.
• In September 1842, Major Outram was replaced by Sir Charles Napier as British Resident in Sindh. Napier was equally eager to annex the province and followed a bullying policy. He charged the Amirs of hostility and disaffection towards the British government.

Annexation of Sindh (1843)

• Lord Auckland was the Governor General of India from March 4, 1836, to February 28, 1842. During his time, the British EIC clashed with Dost Muhammad of Afghanistan, which proved fatal for the British and marred British prestige.
• Lord Ellenborough, who became the Governor General of India in 1842, wanted to secure the western boundaries of British India.
• On 17 February 1843, in the Battle of Miani, the British forces under Sir Charles Napier defeated the Amir and conquered the Sindh.
  • Napier called the Sindh war as ‘the tail of the Afghan storm’.
• Finally, despite previous assurances that its territorial integrity would be respected, Sindh was annexed. In 1847, Sindh was made part of British India’s Bombay Presidency.
  • In 1936, Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency.

Sir Charles Napier

• Sir Charles Napier was the Commander-in-Chief of British EIC’s army and was duly awarded after the conquest.
• After the conquest, he was appointed as the First Chief Commissioner and Governor of Sindh and also received seven lakhs of rupees as prize money.

The Treaty of Amritsar or Minto-Metcalfe Treaty (1809)

• Charles Theophilus Metcalfe of the British EIC and Maharaja Ranjit Singh signed a pact in 1809, signifying their friendship. It accepted the Sutlej River as a boundary line for the dominions of Sikh Trans-Sutlej (Territories west of river Sutlej) and EIC (Cis-Sutlej (Territories east of river Sutlej).
• Although the treaty restricted Ranjit Singh from expanding his rule to the Cis-Sutlej states, it allowed him to conquer places in the Trans-Sutlej (Territories west of river Sutlej) states, like Kashmir and Peshawar.

Immediate Effects

• Sikhs:
  • The Treaty of Amritsar prevented Ranjit Singh from establishing Sikh supremacy over the territories between the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers.
  • The Treaty allowed Ranjit Singh to bring the Cis-Sutlej states under his dominion and conquer places like Kashmir and Peshawar.
• British:
  • The British gained Ranjit Singh’s support and secured the northwest border from a possible French invasion.

Punjab after Ranjit Singh

• Maharaja Ranjit Singh had died in June 1839. Despite his great personal achievements, he had failed to establish a stable Sikh state in Punjab and his death was followed by political instability. He was a despot and had established a military rule. He left behind a standing army of 40,000 soldiers.
• The strength of the army increased three-fold within five years of his death which proved to be a great burden on the shrinking resources of the state. When the soldiers could not be paid salaries, they went out of control and interfered in politics. A war of succession ensued amongst the many sons of Ranjit Singh, the legitimacy of many of whom was doubtful. These incompetent heirs were unable to check the forces of disorder.
• Ranjit Singhs sons Khadak Singh and Naunihal Singh sat on the throne in quick succession.
• In 1843, Dalip Singh, a minor son of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, was proclaimed king under the guardianship of Rani Jindan.

The English Cast Their Eye

• The English were closely watching the happenings in Punjab and cast longing eyes on the fertile plains on the other side of the Sutlej. The disastrous defeat in the Afghan war had lowered British prestige, which they wanted to regain at the cost of the Sindh and Punjab. In 1843 itself, they annexed Sindh, to the south of Punjab, which did not gain the British any respect in Punjab but only increased suspicions of British motives.
• In 1843, Major Broadfoot was appointed as Company’s political agent in Punjab. He stressed on
  the disorder in Punjab and recounted every tale of corrupt behaviour at the court, affecting British attitudes.
• In 1844, Lord Ellenborough was succeeded by Lord Hardinge as Governor-General. Hardinge undertook vigorous measures to strengthen the Company’s military position. The Company’s troops in Punjab and Sindh were trained and fortified. The Company took a hypocritical stand and contended that the preparations were only defensive in nature and calculated to meet a possible attack from the Sikhs. In an attempt to shift the responsibility of war on the shoulders of the Sikhs, the English variously wrote:
  • ‘If the army could not be controlled it must be disbanded or its energies diverted in war. No one dreaded to do the former and so the latter was the only recourse’.
  • ‘Rani Jindan dreaded the absolute power of the Khalsa army and found her only hope of security in urging it on to challenge British supremacy’.
• In 1845, Lai Singh, a lover of Rani Jindan, had won over the army on his side and become the wazir. Teja Singh had become the new commander of the Sikh forces.
• To the Sikhs, the British moves appeared more as an act of aggression rather than defence. Consequently, on 11 December 1845, the Sikh troops, led by Lai Singh, crossed the Sutlej and took offensive action against the English troops commanded by Sir Hugh Gough. On 13 December, Hardinge made his declaration of war and thus the war began.

Causes of Anglo-Sikh War

• British desire to expand their influence and control over Punjab, as it was the only remaining formidable force that could threaten the British hold in India and the last remaining independent kingdom not under British influence.
• Glorious wealth of the kingdom of Punjab-the Kohinoor was but one of its treasures.
• Political instability after the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
• Indiscipline of the Khalsa army.
• Instigating role of Major Braodfoot.
• English attempt to regain the prestige which had suffered during the First Afghan war.

Details

• Four successive battles were fought between the British and the Sikh army. These were the battles of Mudki, Ferozeshah, Baddoval and Aliwal. But the fifth and decisive battle was the Battle of Sabbraon (10 February 1846).
• Due to the treachery of Lai Singh and Teja Singh, who gave all critical information to the English, the battle resulted in a bloody slaughter of Sikh troops.
• After the defeat of the Sikhs, the British occupied Lahore and forced the Sikhs to sign the Treaty of Lahore.

Treaty of Lahore (9 March 1846)

• The main provisions of the Treaty of Lahore were as follows:
  • Maharaja gave up all his territories lying to the south of the River Satluj.
  • Sikhs had to pay Rs 1.5 crore as war indemnity. Unable to pay the entire sum, they had to give up certain additional territories including Kashmir and Hazara.
    • In a later separate arrangement (the Treaty of Amritsar), the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, purchased Kashmir from the East India Company for a payment of 7.5 million rupees and was granted the title Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.
  • Minor Dalip Singh was accepted as King with Queen Jindan as his guardian (Queen Regent) and Lai Singh as the wazir.
  • Sir Henry Lawrence became the British Resident at Lahore

Treaty of Amritsar (March 16, 1846)

• Since the Sikhs could not pay the entire war indemnity, the British ceded the territories of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh to Maharaja Gulab Singh for seventy-five lakh rupees.
• On March 16, 1846, the Treaty of Amritsar was signed between the British EIC and Maharaja Gulab Singh, which formalised the transfer of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh to Gulab Singh.
  • The Sikhs disliked the British move of selling away Kashmir to Gulab Singh. Consequently, the Sikhs revolted under Lal Singh. The revolt was suppressed and yet another treaty, Treaty of Bhairoval, was signed with Dalip Singh.

Treaty of Bhairoval (16 December 1846)

• Main provisions of the treaty were as follows:
  • Rani Jindan’s guardianship was ended and she was pensioned. (Maharani Jind Kaur was removed from Lahore Darbar and sent to Sheikhupura and then Banaras.)
  • A Council of eight Sikh chiefs under the Chairmanship of British Resident was appointed for governance works.
    • The British Resident at Lahore was given full authority over all matters in every state department.
  • It was decided that a permanent British army will be placed at Lahore until Dalip Singh becomes a major.
  • The British were permitted to station their troops in any part of the state.
• This made the British Resident the real ruler of the Punjab, and Punjab became a dependent state of the British.

Consequences of the First Anglo-Sikh War

• The Punjab became a British dependency.
• The Sikh Empire lost Kashmir to the British.
• The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, a Muslim-majority state with a Hindu Dogra ruler, was formed on March 16, 1846.

Second Anglo-Sikh War Details

• After the Treaty of Bhairoval, the British Resident became the virtual ruler of Punjab with unlimited civil and military powers. When Rani Jindan showed her resentment towards such usurpation of powers, her jewellery was seized and she was sent to Sheikhpura under spies. Her pension was also arbitrarily reduced from Rs 1.5 lakh to mere Rs 48,000 per annum.
• The British were not satisfied with their indirect rule in Punjab and were waiting for an opportunity to establish a direct rule in Punjab.
  1. Their opportunity came in 1848 when the Punjabis rose in numerous local revolts. Two prominent revolts were led by Mulraj at Multan and Sardar Chatter (Chattur) Singh Attariwala near Lahore.
• Immediate Cause (Revolt of Mulraj):
  1. Diwan Mulraj Chopra was the governor of Multan. In a dispute over taxation, the British ordered his replacement with Sirdar Khan Singh and Lieutenant Patrick Vans Agnew, a British political agent.
  2. The new Governor-General Dalhousie soon got his opportunity for annexation when two British officers, Vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, were sent for taking charge of Multan from its Governor, Mulraj. The officers were murdered there and within a short period of time, other Sikh chiefs joined in with their armies in open rebellion under the banner of Mulraj. The rebellion soon developed into a national uprising in Punjab.
• Taking this as an excuse, Dalhousie declared war, saying: ‘the Sikh nation has called for war and on my word, sirs, they shall have it with a vengeance’. Three battles were fought in the Second Anglo Sikh War, namely:
  1. Battle of Ramnagar (22 November 1848)
  2. Battle of Chillianwala (13 January 1849): The first two battles were indecisive. In these battles, the British army was led by General Gough.
  3. Battle of Gujarat (21 February 1849): The Sikh army was defeated and it surrendered before the English led by Charles Napier.
• Once the Sikh army collapsed, Dalhousie decided in favour of annexation declaring that, ‘There never can be now any guarantee for the tranquility of India, until we shall have affected the entire subjugation of the Sikh people and destroyed its power as an independent nation. Hence, on 29 March 1849, Dalhousie annexed Punjab.
• Maharaja Dalip Singh was pensioned and sent to England for education (There he adopted Christianity but later returned to Punjab and re-embraced Sikhism). Punjab administration was entrusted to a Board of Commissioners. Kohinoor diamond was taken away from Dalip Singh and placed in the British royal crown. In this way, Punjab was made part of the British Empire.

Administration of Punjab

• After the annexation of Punjab, it was governed by a three-member Board of Administration.
• In 1853, the Board of Administration was abolished and replaced by the office of chief commissioner.
• Following the transfer of power from EIC to the Crown in 1859, the office of chief commissioner was replaced by the lieutenant governor.

Lawrence Brothers

John Lawrence

• John Lawrence was a member of the Board of Administration of Punjab from 1849 to 1853.
• From 1853 to 1858, he was the chief commissioner of Punjab.
• In 1859, he became the first lieutenant governor of Punjab.
• From 1864 to 1869, he was the Governor-General of India.

Henry Lawrence

• After the First Anglo-Sikh War, Henry was appointed a British resident at Lahore.
• After the Second Anglo-Sikh War, he was appointed head of the Board of Administration. He was assisted on the board by his brothers, John, and Charles Grenville Mansel.

Doctrine of Lapse

About

• According to the Doctrine of Lapse, when the ruler of a protected state died without a natural heir (son), his kingdom would lapse, that is, become part of the company’s territory. The state would pass to an adopted child only if the British authorities approved the adoption. That is, the adopted children had no legal right over the throne.
• Many Indian princely states have traditionally adopted heirs in the absence of a direct male successor to ensure the continuation of their rule. The Doctrine of Lapse dictated that if an Indian princely state lacked a surviving male heir or if there was a succession dispute, the British would annexe the state’s territory.
  • Based on the principle that Britain, as the paramount power, could accept or reject adopted heirs of Indian rulers, the doctrine was justified as ensuring good governance in mismanaged states.
  • The Court of Directors introduced this policy in 1847, initially targeting smaller Indian states. Lord Dalhousie later expanded its use to increase British control aggressively.
  • The annexations also helped the financially struggling East India Company increase revenue and reduce subsidiary alliance costs.

Features of Doctrine of Lapse

About

The doctrine of lapse was widely regarded as an imperialist approach by Indian rulers. They opposed this policy because it increased the power of the British government. The Doctrine of Lapse had several key features that defined its implementation

Annexation of States Without a Male Heir

The primary feature of the Doctrine of Lapse was the automatic annexation of any princely state where the ruler died without a natural male heir. The British refused to acknowledge adopted heirs, which was a common practice among Indian rulers.

British Approval Required

Even in cases where adoption was previously accepted, the doctrine required that such adoptions receive explicit British approval before being considered valid for succession.

Inheritance

According to the Doctrine of Lapse, an adopted heir could inherit only the prince’s personal belongings and property, not the rulership of the kingdom. Thus, it directly challenged the traditional Indian practice of adopting an heir to succeed to the throne.

Pension and Titles

Under the Doctrine of Lapse, the adopted son of a princely state’s ruler would be ineligible to receive any pensions previously granted to his father. It also prohibited the usage of titles that his father might have received earlier.

Selective Application

The policy was not uniformly applied to all princely states. Its implementation often depended on strategic and economic considerations. It applied to states without a competent ruler or legal heir to the throne.

Legal Rationale

The Doctrine of Lapse was publicly portrayed as being grounded in Hindu law, but this was misleading. While Hindu law allowed for the adoption of a son to ensure succession, the annexation policy under the Doctrine of Lapse did not recognise adopted heirs, leading to their exclusion from succession rights.

Misgovernance Clause

In some instances, states were annexed on the pretext of misgovernance, even when succession was not an issue.

States Annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse

Satara (1848)

Satara became the first state to be annexed under this policy by Dalhousie in 1848. The Raja of Satara (Appa Sahib) died without a male heir, and despite the adoption of a son, the British annexed the state, citing the doctrine.

Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849)

These smaller states were annexed in quick succession. The British took control, arguing that the absence of a natural heir nullified the state’s sovereignty.

Udaipur (1852)

This was a state in present-day Chhattisgarh, not to be confused with the more famous Udaipur in Rajasthan.

Jhansi (1853)

The annexation of Jhansi became particularly controversial and led to Rani Lakshmibai’s rebellion during the 1857 uprising.

Nagpur (1854)

One of the largest and most significant annexations under the doctrine.

Awadh (1856)

Although not strictly annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse (as there was a natural heir), Awadh was annexed on the grounds of misgovernance, using similar principles.

Effects of Doctrine of Lapse Policy

About

The Doctrine of Lapse had profound effects on British India. It led to significant territorial expansion but also incited widespread resentment among Indian rulers. Its implementation contributed to the unrest that culminated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Expansion of British Territories

The doctrine of lapse led to the annexation of key states, expanding British control and increasing administrative responsibilities.

Loss of Sovereignty for Princely States

Indian princely states lost sovereignty, sparking unrest. Rulers like the Rani of Jhansi and Nana Sahib were denied their thrones.

Erosion of Traditional Practices

The rejection of adopted heirs disrupted succession traditions, destabilised the political landscape and weakened India’s cultural fabric.

Prelude to the Indian Rebellion of 1857

The annexations and policies like the Doctrine of Lapse fueled discontent, contributing to the 1857 rebellion.

Change in British Policy

After the rebellion, the British Crown assumed control, abandoned the doctrine, and adopted a more conciliatory approach toward Indian rulers. 

State (Annexed)

Year

Satara

1848

Jaitpur

1849

Sambalpur

1849

Udaipur

1852

Jhansi

1853

Nagpur

1854

Tanjore

1855

Carnatic

1855

Awadh

1856

Important Reasons

Details

Shifting Financial Base of East India Company (from Trade to Land Revenue)

• The province of Bengal was the first substantial area in the Asian mainland to pass under direct control of the English Company. Until now, the Company’s primary source of income was trade, which soon began to face multifarious challenges.
• By 1770s, Bengal had been milked dry and its economy was in shambles. This not only affected
  Company’s profits but also jeopardised its extremely lucrative trade with China, as the Chinese at that time sold their goods only in exchange for silver which had been mostly provided from Bengal treasury.
• Further, the industrial revolution in England had gained strength and the industrial interests were demanding an end to the Company’s trade monopoly in the East. The Company itself was getting involved in costly military conflicts in India with the country powers. In this context, with declining income from trade and increasing expenditure on armed conflict, the Company’s financial base began to shift from trade and commerce to land revenue, from business of trade to business of government. This naturally pushed the Company to go ahead with continuous territorial expansion.

Need to Obtain Spices from South-East Asia for Trade

• For several years, the Company had been carrying out profitable trade with China, especially in silks, nankeens (yellowish cotton cloth) and tea. But the Chinese traded mostly in exchange for silver, which had been provided by the Bengal treasury since 1757.
• With the depletion of Bengal’s wealth, the Company sought to pay for Chinas trade, first, by replacing the silver with opium from Malwa region of Central India, and second, by obtaining costly spices (like clove and nutmeg) from South-East Asia for sale in China and Europe. This impelled the Company to expand itself into South-East Asia.

Need for New Markets and Supplies

• The English Company’s interest in expansion outside India was also fuelled by the need to find new markets for goods procured in India and also to procure supplies either for cross trade or for use by the Company’s military forces.

Need to Safeguard Indian Empire

• The Company also needed to safeguard its Indian empire and the trade routes to China and India. Hence, the Company’s expansion outside India was also strategically driven.

Details

• The Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816), also known as the Gorkha War was a significant military conflict between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal.
• Both sides had ambitious expansion plans for the mountainous north of the Indian subcontinent. The war ended with a British victory and the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, which ceded some of the Nepalese-controlled territory to the EIC.

Historical Context

• In the mid-eighteenth century, the British East India Company actively traded with Nepal. Viewed as an opulence hub, Nepal supplied the Company with commodities such as rice, butter, oil seeds, timber, dyes, and gold.
• In 1767, British concerns around this partnership grew when the Gorkhas ascended their power and leadership in Nepal.
• In 1768, the Gorkhas (hardy people belonging to the hill town of ‘Gorkha’) wrested the control of Kathmandu from the successors of Ranjit Malla of Bhatgaon.
• In their attempt to expand beyond the mountains, they were checked by the Chinese in the north. Hence, they pushed towards the frontiers of Bengal and Awadh, coming in contact and clash with the English in India.
• In 1801, Governor-General Wellesley, in pursuance of his scheme of Subsidiary Alliance to consolidate Company’s territories in India and create outposts against Tibet or China, forced the Hindu Gorkha Kingdom of Nepal to sign the treaty and accept a British Resident at Kathmandu.
• However, in 1803, the Resident left owing to Nepalese hostility. The following decade saw numerous problems all along the 1,100-km long border shared between Nepal and India.
• As 1814 approached, however, the British found themselves concerned by the possibility of an alliance between Nepal and Sikhs in northern India.
  • The Company believed that if Nepal was expelled from its Western lands, the “Terai” region, it would no longer pose a danger.

Causes of Anglo-Nepal War

• Pursuance of British foreign and frontier policy– British did not want to solely depend on the Himalayas to provide India protection from the North. They looked at Nepal as a stable buffer state between India and Tibet or China.
• The ensuing border disputes.
• Expansionist policy followed by both the English and the Gorkhas.

The War

• In May 1814, the Gorkhas attacked three police stations of Butwal, then under the English East India Company’s authority. Governor-General Hastings took it as a challenge to Company’s authority and decided to launch an offensive along the whole frontier, from the Sutlej to the Kosi. In October 1814, Governor-General Hastings launched the Nepal War.
• The Gurkha army, under the command of Amar Singh Thapa, numbered between 5,000 and 8,000 men. Despite their smaller size, they had the advantage of fighting on familiar terrain, giving them a strategic edge. The rugged terrain hampered the EIC’s logistics, including difficulties in transporting artillery and supplying troops. The Gurkhas’ forts, often on hilltops, were highly defensible, causing problems for EIC assaults.
  • One major EIC loss occurred at the Battle of Jitgadh, where General Wood’s forces were defeated by Gurkha commander Ujir Singh Thapa.
  • Major General Gillespie, leading another EIC force, was an early casualty while attempting to take the fort of Jaitak near Dehra in late 1814.
  • The decisive EIC victory came on 28 February 1816 at the Battle of Makwanpur, led by Ochterlony, after his strategic efforts to position heavy cannons by building roads.
  • Despite the Gurkhas’ defensive efforts and threats to EIC supply lines, the relentless British campaigning and superior resources led Nepal to sue for peace.
• Battles of Butwal, Almora, Malaon and Makwanpur were the important battles fought; all went in favour of the English.
• The Nepalese were finally defeated and forced to sign the Treaty of Sugauli (March 1816).
• As per the treaty, the British gained the districts of Garhwal and Kumaon (comprising a great portion of the rich Terai forests) and a resident was placed at Kathmandu. The north-west frontier of the Company was pushed up to the mountains as English also gained the entire area of the Sutlej hills comprising hill stations of Simla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Landour and Nainital.
• After the Treaty of Sugauli, the British used a great deal of tact in their dealings with the rulers of Nepal. They treated Nepalese ruler as sovereign and in return, even they allowed no diplomatic mission, other than that of Britain into Nepal.
• Nepal also maintained neutrality during the Revolt of 1857, while the British enlisted a large number of Gorkhas as mercenaries in their army. About 5,000 Nepali men entered British service in 1815, most ofwhom were not ‘real’ Gorkhas but Kumaonis, Garhwalis and other Himalayan hill men.
  • These groups, eventually lumped together under the term Gurkha, and became the backbone of British Indian forces.

Treaty of Sugauli

• The Anglo-Nepalese War concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, heavily favouring the British East India Company. The treaty resulted in significant territorial losses for Nepal and a shift in its political relations with the British.
  • Nepal agreed to accept a British resident within its territory.
  • Nepal ceded the districts of Garhwal and Kumaon and relinquished claims over the Terai region.
  • Nepal also withdrew from its territorial claims in Sikkim

Burmese Ruler (Konbaung dynasty)

Reign

Alaungpaya (Founder)

1752-60

Bodawpaya

1782-1819

Pagan

1846-53

Mindon

1853-78

Thibaw

1878-85

First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26)

Explanations

• The First Burmese War was the result of border clashes. In 1823-24, the Burmese military, in its pursuit for rebels, entered and occupied Assam and Manipur and prepared to attack Chittagong.
• The British authorities looked upon the Burmese occupation of Manipur and Assam as a serious threat to their position in India. British authorities sent troops to Cachar and Jaintia to counter the Burmese threat to India. This angered Burmese Commander-in-Chief Maha Bandula, who marched their troops into Cachar.
• In February 1824, British authorities declared war on Burma after the Burmese invaded and captured Shalpuri island near Chittagong, which was a part of EIC.
• After an initial setback, the British forces drove the Burmese out of Assam, Cachar, Manipur and Arakan.
• The British decided to take amphibious action (through land and sea) to take over the Rangoon. In 1824, a naval force of 10,000 British and Indian troops led by Sir Archibald Campbell arrived in Rangoon. On April 1, Maha Bandula was killed.
• By February 1826, the Anglo-Indian army had advanced to Yandabo (a town), just eighty kilometres from the then-capital Ava (Inwa). However, the Burmese resistance was strong and determined, and the war had become financially highly costly.
• Therefore, the British, who were winning the war, and the Burmese, who were losing it, were willing to make peace. This led to the Treaty of Yandabo, signed on 26 February 1826, ending the war.
  • The war was thus brought to an end, and the British army moved south. The British army remained in the territories surrendered to it under the treaty and in the territories such as the Rangoon area which were occupied for several years to guarantee compliance with the financial terms of the treaty.
• The Treaty of Yandabo was signed by General Campbell from the British side and Governor of Legaing Maha Min Hla Kyaw Htin from the Burmese side on 24 February 1826.
• As per the treaty, The English regained control over Assam, Manipur and occupied Arakan and Tenasserim region (Tavoy and Mergui). Thus, the King lost most of his coast.
• The King was forced to accept a British Resident at his capital and pay war indemnity of one million pounds sterling, and signed a commercial treaty.

Treaty of Yandabo (24 February 1826)

• By the terms of the Treaty of Yandabo, the Government of Burma agreed:
  • To cede the coastal provinces of Arakan (now Rakhine) and Tenasserim (now Tanintharyi) to the British.
  • To abandon all claims to Assam, Cachar, and Jaintia
  • To recognise Manipur as an independent state.
  • To accept a British Resident at Ava while posting a Burmese envoy at Calcutta.
  • To pay one million sterling pounds as war compensation
  • To negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain
• After the Treaty of Yandabo:
  • Assam, Arakan and Tenasserim became a part of British India.
    • The Ahom Kingdom was terminated, and the control of Assam passed into the British hands.
  • Cachar, Jaintia and Manipur became the British Protectorate (under British Control).
    • British annexed the Southern Cachar in 1832 and Northern Cachar in 1854.
    • British annexed the Jaintia in 1835. The main reason for the annexation of Jaintia was the practice of human sacrifice. The Jaintias abducted the British subjects and sacrificed them to the goddess Kali.

Importance of the Treaty of Yandabo

• The Treaty of Yandabo enabled the British to annex Burma and consolidate their position in South East Asia.
• It put an end to one of the most expensive wars in British Indian history.
• It marked the beginning of the end of Burmese independence.
• The powerful Burmese empire that posed a threat to the British was finally conquered and crippled

Aftermath of the Treaty of Yandabo

• The War and indemnity left Burma weak economically and politically.
• The battle cost the British five to thirteen million pounds sterling, thus leading to a severe economic crisis in British India in 1833.
• Due to the heavy economic loss, the EIC had to give up its privileges and lost its trade monopoly with China.

Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852-53)

• In 1839, the British Resident claimed that the Burmese did not treat him well and left. Meanwhile, Burma had emerged as a major supplier of timber (needed for ship-building and repair industry of the English Company based in Calcutta) and other costly items like tin, pepper and ivory. The deltas of the Irrawaddy River had also emerged as important suppliers of rice to Bengal and to the growing settlements in SouthEast Asia. These developments tempted the British to look for opportunity to annex Burma.
• After the Treaty of Yandabo, several British merchants had settled on the southern coast of Burma and Rangoon. They often complained of ill-treatment at the hands of the Burmese. Two British captains were heavily fined by the Burmese government on certain charges brought against them.
• Following this incident, the British merchants sent a petition to the then Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, providing the desired opportunity. Thus, in 1852, Dalhousie decided to attack Burma on the pretext of restoring the dignity of the English.
• The war started in 1852 and by 1853, the English had annexed Rangoon, Pegu (or Lower Burma) and the region upto Toungoo, thus gaining control of the entire coast of the Bay of Bengal. The Burmese King, Mindon Min, was forced to shift his capital to Mandalay.
  • During this time, Burma was undergoing a power struggle. In February 1853, the Burmese King, Mindon, removed his half-brother, King Pagan.
  • Mindon found himself in a difficult situation. He was not in a position to fight the British, and he
    could not openly agree to surrender Burmese territory either. Consequently, there were no official negotiations for peace, and the war ended without a treaty.
• With the annexation of Pegu, the British gained control over Burma’s entire coastline and sea trade. After three years of fighting against local guerrilla resistance, the British also gained control of Lower Burma.
  • The annexation of Pegu faced much criticism in Britain itself and was variously described as a very serious evil’ and as motivated by exaggerated ambition to extend India to its illusory natural frontiers’.

Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885)

Details

• King Mindon tried to modernize the Burmese state and economy to ensure its independence, and he established a new capital at Mandalay, which he proceeded to fortify.
• To offset the British, he entertained envoys from France and sent his emissaries there. King Mindon died in 1878 and his son Thibaw took over the reign.
• During the reign of Thibaw (1878–85), the British were willing to ignore Upper Burma and concentrate on French moves in Laos, Vietnam, and Yunnan.
• In 1885, King Thibaw signed a commercial trade treaty with the French which alarmed the British. This action provoked British forces to strike.
• The Third Burmese War took place in 1885 when the English attacked Burma on the pretext that the king Thibaw Min was intriguing with the French in Vietnam to weaken English control over Asia.
• The war ended in English victory and annexation of Upper Burma. Thus, Burma was turned into a province of British India (1937 onwards, Burma was governed as a separate colony).

Causes of the Third Burmese War

• Commercial Greed of the British:
  • The possibility of trade with China through Burma attracted British merchants and industrialists.
  • Many merchants demanded the British conquest of Upper Burma to open more markets.
    • In 1862, Burma signed a commercial treaty with the British allowing British merchants to settle in any part of Burma and navigate the Irrawaddy River to China.
    • However, the Burmese king held a trade monopoly on several goods, such as cotton, wheat, and ivory. This did not satisfy the British merchants and the king finally abolished all monopolies in February 1882.
• Growing French Influence in Burma:
  • King Mindon died in 1878 and was succeeded by King Thibaw. In 1885, Thibaw signed a purely commercial treaty with France, providing for trade.
  • The British merchants feared that:
    • French and American rivals would capture the rich Burmese market.
    • An alliance with France might lead to the founding of French dominion in Burma.
      • The French had already emerged as a major rival of Britain in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

Burma’s Independence

• The Anglo-Burmese Wars not only led to the British annexation of Burma but also sparked significant resistance. Following the wars, British authorities faced a strong guerrilla uprising across Burma.
• After the First World War (1914-18), a vigorous modern nationalist movement arose in Burma. A wide campaign of boycotting British goods was organised, and the demand for Home Rule was put forward. The Burmese nationalists soon joined hands with the Indian National Congress.
• In 1935, the British separated Burma from India in the hope of weakening the Burmese struggle for freedom. The Burmese nationalists opposed this step.
• The Burmese nationalist movement reached new heights under the leadership of U Aung San during the Second World War (1939-45).
• Finally, Burma won its independence on 4 January 1948.