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Babur
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- Babur’s ancestor, Timur, had largely benefited of his Indian adventure. Timur had annexed some areas of Punjab, which remained with his successors for several generations. When Babur conquered Afghanistan, he felt he had right over these areas. This conquest made him think of the conquest of India.
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Reasons for Conquest of India
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- Like myriad earlier invaders of India from Central Asia, Babur too was drawn towards India by the lure of its wealth. Babur was looking towards India as a place which could add to his meager revenue from Kabul. Moreover, he was apprehensive of the attack of Uzbeks on Kabul, because of which he considered India as a suitable base for refuge and also to carry out operations against Uzbeks. Also, the splintered political conditions of India suited Babur. He also received embassies from Afghan chief Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga, requesting him to invade India.
- By defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (20 April 1526), Babur established his control up to Delhi and Agra. But presence of Babur in the Indo-Gangetic valley was a threat to Rana Sanga. While Sanga wanted to confine Babur to Punjab, Babur accused Sanga of breach of agreement as Sanga did not join him against Ibrahim Lodi. The armies of Babur and Rana Sanga eventually fought the Battle of Khanwa in 1527, where Sanga was defeated.
- The Battle of Khanwa secured Babur’s position in the Delhi-Agra region. He then led a campaign (Battle of Chanderi) against Medini Rai of Chanderi in 1528, in which he captured Chanderi.
- But, the Afghans who were dominant in eastern Uttar Pradesh were not reconciled. In 1529, Babur started a campaign (Battle of Ghaghara) against them but could not win a decisive victory. He signed an agreement with Afghan chiefs, who were allowed to rule over Bihar. Shortly after, Babur died on 26th December 1530.
- Although Babur was an orthodox Sunni, he was not bigot. He was one of the two important writers in the Turkish language. He wrote ‘Tuzuk-i-Baburi’.
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Significance of Babur’s Conquest of India
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- He brought Kabul and Qandhar within the North Indian Empire, which
- secured the North-west frontier for almost 200 years.
- increased India’s share of trade with China and Mediterranean seaports.
- Defeat of Lodi’s and the Rajput confederacy under Sanga, eventually led to the formation of an all-India Mughal empire.
- A new mode of warfare began in India. Although already known, Babur popularized gunpowder and artillery in India.
- He formed a state based on strength and prestige of the crown.
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Humayun
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- Humayun succeeded Babur in 1530. He had various challenges in the form of consolidation of the infant Mughal empire, timurid tradition of dividing the empire among all the brothers, the Afghans who were thinking of expelling Mughals from India and growing power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
- Shortly, Humayun undertook Gujarat campaign. He won both Gujarat and Malwa from Bahadur Shah, but also lost them in a quick succession. However, he succeeded in destroying the threat posed by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
- Meanwhile, Sher Shah, a powerful Afghan sardar, increased his power when Humayun was busy in his Gujarat campaign. Although Sher Shah professed loyalty to the Mughals, he was planning to expel Mughals from India. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj (1540). This battle made Humayun a prince without a kingdom and he had to take a shelter at the court of Iranian king.
- The major cause of Humayun’s defeat was that he failed to understand the nature of the Afghan power. Afghan tribes were scattered over north India, who could always unite under a capable leader. Sher Shah gave them this leadership. Also, Humayun showed bad political sense in the form of his Bengal campaign against Sher Shah. Also, after Sher Shah’s victories he did not receive help from his brothers.
- But in 1555, with the breaking up of the Sur empire, Humayun was able to recover Delhi. But he died soon thereafter, after falling from the first floor of the library building in his fort at Delhi. His tomb was build by his favourte wife Bega Begum.
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Sur Empire (1540-55)
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- Sher Shah Suri ascended the throne of Delhi in 1540. He ruled over the mightiest empire in the North India since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He added Malwa and Rajasthan to his territories. He died in 1545 and was succeeded by his son Islam Shah, who ruled till 1553. After Islam Shah’s death a civil war set in amongst his successors. This created an opportunity for Humayun, who in 1555 defeated Afghans, to recover Delhi and Agra.
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Contributions of Sher Shah
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- He re-established law and order across his empire.
- He improved communication by building roads which helped in fostering trade and commerce. He restored the Grand Trunk Road connecting Bengal with Northwest. He built sarais and inns along these roads. Many of these sarai developed into market-towns (qasbas) and stages for news service or dak-chowki.
- His currency reforms and standardisation of weights and measures all over the empire helped in increasing trade and commerce.
- For land revenue administration, he insisted on measurement of the sown land for computation of average produce to determine the state’s share, which was one-third of the average produce.
- The tomb built by Sher Shah for himself at Sasaram is seen as a culmination of Sultanat type of architecture and a starting point of a new Mughal style.
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Akbar
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- Akbar was the greatest of the Mughal rulers. He was crowned in 1556. After the Second battle of Panipat between him (led by his wakil Bairam Khan) and Hemu, the Afghan leader, he established his control over the empire. During the first phase of expansion of the empire, he brought regions like Ajmer, Malwa, Garha-Katanga, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Bengal under his control.
- The administrative changes made by Akbar as well as his liberal religious policy resulted in rebellions in Gujarat, Bengal and Bihar. These rebellions kept the empire distracted for two years (1580-81). Akbar with the services of his nobles like Todar Mai, Raja Man Singh etc. successfully handled these rebellions.
- Soon after this, due to rising threat from Uzbeks, Akbar had to concentrate on the North-west frontier. He consolidated his power in the North-West and gave the empire a scientific frontier. He also captured Odisha (Earlier known as Orissa) and Dacca. With this, by the turn of the century the political integration of the North India was achieved.
- Hereafter, Akbar turned his attention towards the Deccan. He was afraid that sectarian rivalries of the Deccani states could spread into the Mughal empire in the North. Also, the Portuguese were trying to expand their position over the mainland. This along with proselytizing activities by the Portuguese impelled Akbar to get involved in the Deccani affairs.
- Akbar himself marched down to capture Khandesh in 1601. In the same year control was established over Berar, Ahmadnagar and parts of Telangana. However, no lasting solution could be arrived at for the Deccani problem, as Bijapur was yet to accept Mughal suzerainty. This situation was left to be tackled by Jahangir.
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Land Revenue Administration under Akbar
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- In the field of land revenue administration, Akbar instituted a new system called the dahsala (Ain-i-Dahsala). Under it, the average produce of different crops and average prices prevailing over the past 10 years were calculated. One third of the average produce was the state’s share. The revenue demand was in cash. This system was called the zabti system. The zabti system was associated with Raja Todar Mal.
- Other systems of assessment were also followed during Akbar’s period. The batai or ghalla-bakshi system was the most common and oldest of all. Under it, the produce was divided in the fixed proportion between the peasants and the state. Under batai, the peasants had the choice to pay in either cash or in kind, but the state preferred cash. Another system which was used was nasaq.
- Akbar was interested in advancement of cultivation. Under him, loans (taccavi) to peasants was provided for seeds, implements etc. In fixing of the land revenue, continuity of cultivation was taken into account. Also, the land was classified as per the quality of the land.
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Mansabdari System
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- Under this system, every officer was assigned a rank (Mansab). The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles, which was later raised to 7000. The rank decided the personal status (zat) of a noble and salary due to him as well as the number of cavalrymen (sawar) he was required to maintain. Ideally, for every one cavalryman, two horses had to be maintained.
- The Mansabdars were paid by assigning jagirs to them. But, sometimes paid in cash too. Akbar would not have been able to expand his empire and maintain his hold over it without a strong army. For this purpose, it was necessary for him to organize the nobility as well as his army. Akbar realized both these objectives by means of the mansabdari system.
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Relations with the Rajputs
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- Akbar expanded Humayun’s policy of winning over the Rajputs through matrimonial alliances. But, he did not insist upon matrimonial relations as a precondition. Many Rajputs, like rulers of Ranthambhor, Banswara etc. surrendered to him without entering into matrimonial relations. The Rajput policy also had the angle of broad religious toleration. The only state that defied Mughal suzerainty was Mewar, led by Rana Pratap.
- Akbar’s policy of inducting the Rajput rajas into Mughal service and treating them at par with Mughal nobles benefited. This along with his religious tolerance cemented Akbar’s ties with the Rajputs. Akbar’s Rajput policy was continued by his successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
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Akbar’s Religious Policy
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- Akbar followed a liberal religious policy. He emphasized that the state should be based on sulh-i-kul i.e. equal toleration of and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs. In 1575, Akbar built Ibadat Khana, the Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur Sikri, where he discussed religious and spiritual topics with selected theologians, mystics, scholarly courtiers and nobles. He tried to establish a new order tauhid-i-llahi which literally means ‘Divine Monotheism’.
- Akbar also introduced social and educational reforms. He stopped sati and allowed it only when a widow herself desired it. Widow remarriage was also legalized. The age of marriage was raised to 14 for girls and 16 for boys. The sale of wines and spirits were restricted. But, as Akbar was living in the age of superstition, these steps got limited success. Akbar also revised the educational syllabus wherein emphasis was given on moral and secular subjects like mathematics, agriculture, history, logic etc.
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Jahangir
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- Jahangir succeeded to the throne in 1605 and ruled till 1627. His main achievement was the settlement of outstanding dispute with Mewar and thereby strengthening of the alliance with the Rajputs.
- He also subjugated Deccani states but preferred not to get deeply embroiled in the Deccani affairs. He settled the rebellion of the Afghan chiefs in the Bengal region. But the Persian conquest of Qandhar and Shah Jahan’s refusal to proceed to Qandhar to save it on apprehensions of court intrigue eventually led to a rebellion by Shah Jahan. This coupled with, worsening health of Jahangir led to the rise of Shah Jahan.
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Shah Jahan
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- Shah Jahan ascended the throne in 1628. During the confusion in the Agra due to Jahangir’s weak health, rebellion by Shah Jahan and ambitions of Mahabat Khan led to loss of control over Deccani States. To establish peace in the Deccan for the Mughals, Shah Jahan felt it was necessary to subjugate Ahmadnagar.
- Shah Jahan tried to form alliance with Adil Shah of Bijapur against Ahmadnagar. But in between the struggle against Ahmadnagar, Adil Shah felt the threat of Mughals and thus, he changed the sides. Therefore, Mughals failed to control the area. Hereafter, Shah Jahan turned his attention to Bijapur. At the same time he offered the division of Ahmadnagar between Mughals and Bijapur.
- This led to the treaty between Mughals and Bijapur in 1636. With this treaty, the Mughal suzerainty was established in the Deccan. But the ambitions of Maratha nobles like Shahji and after him, his son Shivaji, and of Golconda nobles kept the area disturbed. Also, arrival of Aurangzeb as the viceroy of the Deccan precipitated the crisis.
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Administration during Jahangir and Shah Jahan
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- The administrative machinery and the revenue system developed by Akbar were maintained with minor variations under Jahangir and Shah Jahan. However, some changes were made in the mansabdari system. Jahangir introduced du-aspah sih-aspah system under which selected nobles could be allowed to maintain a large quota of troopers, without raising their zat rank.
- This was further modified during Shah Jahan’s reign to reduce the number of troopers a noble was required to maintain. This reduction was a result of the financial stress on the exchequer due to number of reasons. This in turn affected the efficiency of the Mughal cavalry on the whole.
- Despite this the mansabdari system functioned properly under Shah Jahan due to his personal attention and services of highly competent wazirs.
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Aurangzeb
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- The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by the war of succession among his sons. Aurangzeb with his high handed approach towards his father and brothers, succeeded to the throne. During his rule, the Mughal empire reached its territorial climax. It stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south and from Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.
- Aurangzeb was orthodox in his belief. He demolished many Hindu temples which created disquiet among large sections of the Hindus. Also re-imposition of jizyah in 1679 created resentment amongst the Hindus. But his religious beliefs cannot be considered as the basis of his political policies.
- Although Aurangzeb attached great value to the alliance with the Rajputs his policy of subjugation towards Marwar and Mewar weakened the alliance with the Rajputs. He was also involved in conflict with the Jats, Afghans and Sikhs. All this put strain on the empire. Moreover these preoccupations of Aurangzeb relaxed the pressure of Mughals on Shivaji during a crucial period of consolidation of Maratha kingdom.
- In 1681, Aurangzeb started his Deccan campaign. He successfully triumphed against Bijapur and Golconda. He made inroads in the Maratha kingdom too, but the Marathas were not defeated. Finally, in 1707 he died, leaving behind an empire which was sorely distracted, and in which all the internal problems were coming to a head.
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