i. Literature – mindplan.in

Course Content

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All topics given below

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Exactly as per official UPSC syllabus

1. Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

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A.1. Indian Paintings from ancient to modern times

i. Prehistoric Paintings

ii. Mural & Cave Paintings

iii. Medieval Indian Paintings

iv. List of Folk Paintings

v. Modern and Contemporary Art

vi. Folk and Tribal Art

i. Early Pottery Traditions

ii. Evolution of Pottery in Ancient India

iii. Medieval Pottery Traditions

iv. Types of Indian Pottery

v. Famous Pottery Styles and Centers in India

vi. Techniques of Pottery Making in India

vii. Significance and Role of Pottery in Indian Society

viii. Challenges Faced by the Pottery Industry in India

ix. Current Trends and Future of Pottery in India

A.3. Architecture

i. Evolution of Indian Architecture

ii. Indus Valley Architecture

iii. Rock Cut Architecture

iv. Temple Architecture

v. Indo-Islamic Architecture

vi. Types of Architecture

vii. Modern Architecture

viii. Significance of Architecture

ix. Recent developments of Architecture

i. Features of Indian Sculpture

ii. Indus Valley Civilization Sculpture

iii. Mauryan Empire Sculptures

iv. Post Mauryan Empire Sculptures

v. Sculptures of Medieval India

vi. Modern Indian Sculptures

B. Performing Arts

i. Classical Dances of India

ii. Folk Dances of India

i. Classical Music of India

ii. Comparison of Hindustani Classical Music and Carnatic Classical Music

B.4. Indian Puppetry in Broader way

i. Origin of Indian Puppetry

ii. Classification of Indian puppetry

iii. String Puppet

iv. Shadow Puppetry

v. Rod Puppetry

vi. Glove Puppetry

B.6. Indian Theatre Forms

i. Classical Sanskrit Theatre

ii. Prominent Sanskrit plays of the ancient period

iii. Main Features of Sankrit plays

iv. Reasons for the decline of Sanskrit Theatre

v. Folk Theatre

B.7. Martial Arts

i. Martial Arts Origin and Evolution

ii. Martial Arts Major Forms in India

iii. Other forms of Martial Arts

iv. Martial Arts Government Initiatives

C. Literary Arts

ii. Ancient Indian Literature

iii. All About Medieval Literature

2. Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant events, personalities, issues.

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A. India on the Eve of British Conquest

A.1. Development of the Mughal Empire

i. Development of the Mughal Empire

ii. Later Mughals

iii. Foreign Invasions

iv. Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire

A.2. Rise of Regional Powers

i. Successor States

ii. The New States (Insurgent States)

iii. Independent Kingdoms

A.3. Nadir Shah’s Invasion

ii. Nadir Shah’s Invasion

iii. Damage on Mughal Empire

A.4. Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions

B. Modern History

B.1. Social and Economic Conditions in 18th Century

B.2. British Conquest of India

i. Emergence of Capitalism and Imperialism in Europe

ii. Advent of Europeans in India

iii. The Carnatic Wars: Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy

iv. British Conquest of Bengal – Plassey to Buxar (1757-65)

v. Anglo-Mysore Wars: British Conquest of Mysore

vi. Anglo-Maratha Wars: First, Second & Third Anglo Maratha War

vii. British Conquest of Sindh (1843)

viii. British Conquest of Punjab (1849)

ix. Doctrine of Lapse Policy

B.3. British Expansion beyond Indian Frontiers

i. Reasons for British Expansion Beyond Indian Frontiers

ii. Anglo-Nepalese War/Gorkha War (1814-16)

iii. Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1885)

iv. Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839-1919)

v. British Relations with Bhutan, Sikkim, and Tibet

C. Indian Renaissance and Reform Movements

C.1. Social and Religious Reform Movements

i. Introduction

ii. Classification of Reform Movements

iii. Brahmo Samaj and Raja Ram Mohan Roy

iv. Swami Vivekananda

v. Theosophical Movement

vi. Sikh Reform Movements

vii. Reform Movement Among the Parsis

viii. Other Reform Movements

ix. Prominent Reformers of the 19th Century

x. Caste Movements and Organisation

xi. Socio-Religious Reform Movements and Organisations

xii. Muslim Socio-Religious Movements and Organisation

C.2. Civil Uprisings: Peasant Resistance Against British Rule Before 1857

i. Introduction

ii. Civil Uprisings

iii. Other Civil Uprisings

iv. Important Peasant Movements

C.3. Revolt of 1857, Causes, Leaders, Consequences, Reasons of Failure

i. Revolt of 1857 Causes

ii. Revolt of 1857 Events

iii. Revolt of 1857 Leaders

iv. Reasons of Failure of the Revolt of 1857

v. Revolt of 1857 Consequences

D. India’s Struggle for Independence: Indian Freedom Movement

E. Modern Indian History Books and Authors

E.1. Growth of modern Indian history books

E.2. Modern Indian History Books and Authors

E.3. Conclusion

3. The Freedom Struggle – its various stages and important contributors/ contributions from different parts of the country.

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A. Early Resistance To British Rule (1757-1857)

B. The First War Of Independence (1857)

C. Formative Phase (1885-1905)

D. Swadeshi Movement (1905-1911)

E. The Gandhian Era (1869-1948): Chronological Overview

E.1. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948): Chronological Overview

E.2. Facts About Gandhi

E.3. 11 Principles Of Mahatma Gandhi – Gandhiji’s Vows

E.4. Main Events During The Gandhian Era

F. Subaltern Contributions To The Indian Freedom Struggle

G. Revolutionary Movements In The Indian Freedom Struggle

H. The Indian Freedom Struggle: Conclusion

4. Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country.

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A. Integration Of Princely States Of India, Reasons, Issues

A.1. Princely States During Independence

A.2. What Were The Problems Of Integration?

A.3. Accession Process

i. Fast-track Integration

ii. Integration of Major States

A.4. Post-Integration Issues

B. Reorganisation Of States: Background, Rationale, Debate

B.1. Background Of State Reorganisation In India

B.2. Rationale Behind The Reorganisation Of The Indian States

B.3. Commissions Related To State Reorganisation

B.4. New States And Union Territories Created After 1956

i. Current Statehood Demands

5. History of the world will include events from the 18th century such as Industrial revolution, World wars, Redrawal of national boundaries, Colonization, Decolonization, Political philosophies like Communism, Capitalism, Socialism etc.- their forms and effect on the society.

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A. Industrial Revolution: Origin, Impact And Timeline

A.1. Modern Industrialisation

A.2. First Industrial Revolution: 1765

A.3. Second Industrial Revolution: 1870

A.4. Third Industrial Revolution: 1969

A.5. Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0): Present

A.6. Industry 4.0 And India

A.7. Conclusion

B.1. World War – I

i. Introduction

iii. WW1: Causes

iv. World War 1: A Glimpse

v. WW1: Consequences

vi. WW1 and India

B.2. World War – II

ii. WW2: Timeline

iii. WW2: Causes

iv. WW2: A Glimpse

v. WW2: Aftermath

vi. WW2: Outcomes

vii. World War 2 and India

C. Redrawal Of National Boundaries

C.1. Redrawal Of National Boundaries

C.2. The Congress Of Vienna (1814-15)

C.3. Major Events Before The First World War

C.4. Europe In 1914

i. How WWI changed the map

C.5. World War II And Redrawal Of National Boundaries

C.6. Major Events After WW II

C.7. The Emergence Of New Nations

ii. Middle east

iii. Israel -Palestine conflict

v. Decolonization of Africa

C.8. Other Important Events

D. Colonization

D.1. Types Of Colonization

D.2. Reasons For Colonization

D.3. Merits Of Colonialism

D.4. Impact Of Colonialism

D.5. Establishment Of Colonies In Asia

D.6. Social And Economic Impact Of Colonialism On India

D.7. Conclusion

E. Decolonization

E.1. Introduction

E.2. Decolonisation: Stages

E.3. Reasons For Decolonisation

E.4. Aspects Of Decolonisation In Various Regions Of The World

E.5. Challenges Associated With Decolonisation

i. Post-colonial organizations

F. Political Philosophies Like Communism, Capitalism, Socialism Etc.- Their Forms And Effect On The Society.

F.1. Political Philosophies: Capitalism

F.2. Political Philosophies: Socialism

F.3. Political Philosophies: Communism

F.4. Conclusion

6. Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India.

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A. Salient Features Of Indian Society

A.1. What Is a ‘Society’?

A.2. What Are The General Traits Of Indian Society?

A.3. What Are The Salient Features Of Indian Society?

i. Multi-ethnicity

ii. Multilingualism

iii. Multi-religious

iv. Caste system

v. Family, Marriage, and Kinship

vii. Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity

viii. Balance between individualism and collectivism

ix. Balance between spiritualism and materialism

A.4. What Factors Threaten Peace And Harmony In Indian Society?

B. Diversity Of India

B.1. What Is Diversity?

B.2. What Are The Various Manifestations Of Diversity In India?

B.3. What Are The Elements Of Unity In India?

B.4. What Does India Gain Through Its Unity And Diversity?

B.5. What Are The Factors That Threaten India’s Diversity?

B.6. What Are The Existing Mechanisms To Promote Unity And Diversity In India?

B.7. How To Strike A Balance Between Unity And Diversity In India?

7. Role of women and women’s organizations, Population and associated issues, Poverty and developmental issues, Urbanization, their problems and their remedies.

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A. Role Of Women And Women’s Organizations

A.1. Role Of Women In India

i. How has the role and status of women in India evolved over time?

ii. What is the role of women in Indian society in general?

iii. What is the role of women in Indian politics?

iv. What is the role of women in India’s Economic growth story?

v. What is the role of women in environmental conservation and sustainable development?

vi. What measures could help enhance the role of women?

A.2. Women Organizations In India

i. How did women organizations and feminist movements evolve in India?

ii. What are some of the important women’s organizations in India?

iii. What are the challenges faced by women’s organizations in India?

iv. How can the role of women organizations be enhanced in India?

B. Population And Associated Issues

B.1. Recent Context

B.2. Factors Influencing The Distribution Of Population

B.3. India’s Demographic Dividend

B.4. India-Demographic Data

B.5. Consequences Of Overpopulation

B.6. Current Context Regarding Overpopulation

B.7. Planning In India Associated With Population

B.8. Ethical Consideration For Population Control

B.9. Steps Being Taken By The Government For Population Control:

B.10. International Focus On Population

B.11. Conclusion

C. Poverty And Developmental Issues

C.1. What Is Poverty?

C.2. What Is The Status Of Poverty In India?

C.3. What Are The Distinct Characteristics Of Poverty In India?

C.4. What Are The Factors Contributing To Poverty In India?

C.5. What Are The Developmental Issues Which arise Due To Poverty In India?

C.6. How Is Poverty In India Related To Its Demography?

C.7. What Measures Can Help To Alleviate Poverty In India?

D. Urbanization: Problems And Remedies.

D.1. What Leads To Urbanization?

D.2. Urbanization In India

D.3. Global Scenario

D.4. Significance Of Urbanization

D.5. Drawbacks Of Urbanization

D.6. Government Schemes To Manage Urbanization

D.7. Way Forward

8. Effects of globalization on Indian society.

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A. Globalisation In India Factors And Causes

B. Globalisation Positive Impact On Indian Society

C. Globalisation Adverse Effects In India

D. Globalisation Measures For Indian Society

9. Social empowerment, Communalism, Regionalism & Secularism.

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A. Social Empowerment: From Communalism, Regionalism, To Secularism

A.1. Social Empowerment

A.2. Social Empowerment And Communalism

A.3. Social Empowerment And Regionalism

A.4. Social Empowerment And Secularism

A.5. Secularism in India

10. Salient features of the world’s physical geography.

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A. Physical Geography

B. Geomorphology

B.1. The Earth And Its Evolution

B.2. Origin Of Earth

B.3. Evolution Of Earth

B.4. Interior Of The Earth

B.5. Structure Of The Earth

B.6. Distribution Of Oceans And Continents

B.7. Continental Drift Theory

B.8. Conventional Current Theory

B.9. Concept Of Seafloor Spreading

B.10. Plate Tectonics

B.11. Minerals And Rocks

B.13. Geomorphic Process

B.14. Endogenic Forces

B.15. Exogenic Process

B.16. Landforms

i. Landforms Made By Running Water

ii. Landforms Made By Glaciers

iii. Landforms Made By Groundwater

iv. Landforms Made By Waves And Currents

v. Landforms Made By Winds

C.1. Atmosphere

C.2. Structure Of The Atmosphere

C.3. Solar Radiation And Heat Budget

C.4. Temperature

C.5. Air Masses

C.7. Extra-Tropical Cyclones

C.8. Tropical Cyclones

C.9. Jet Streams

D. Water In The Atmosphere

D.1. Evaporation And Condensation

D.3. Precipitation

D.4. Types Of Rainfall

D.5. World Climate And Climate Change

E. Oceanography

E.1. Hydrological Cycle

E.2. Relief Of Ocean Floor

E.3. Divisions Of The Ocean Floors

E.4. Other Relief

E.5. The Temperature Of Ocean Waters

i. Salinity In The Ocean Water

E.6. Horizontal And Vertical Distribution Of Salinity

E.7. Movements Of Ocean Water

E.8. Islands And Coral Reefs

i. Types of Islands

ii. Coral reefs

F. Soil Formation

G. Salient Features Of The World’s Physical Geography: Examples

10.1. Physical Geography & Their Features

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A. Geography As A Discipline

B. The Origin & Evolution Of The Earth

B.1. Early Theories

B.2. Modern Theories

C. Interior Of The Earth

C.1. Sources Of Information About The Interior

C.2. Structure Of The Earth

C.3. Volcanoes And Volcanic Landforms

i. Types of volcanoes

ii. Volcanic Landforms

D. Distribution Of Oceans & Continents

D.1. Continental Drift

D.2. Concept Of Seafloor Spreading

D.3. Plate Tectonics

D.4. Movement Of The Indian Plate

E. Minerals And Rocks

F. Geomorphic Processes

F.1. Endogenic Processes

F.2. Exogenic Processes

F.3. Weathering

F.4. Mass Movements

F.5. Soil Formation

G. Landforms And Their Evolution

H. Composition And Structure Of Atmosphere

H.1. Composition Of Atmosphere

H.2. Structure Of The Atmosphere

I. Solar Radiation, Heat Balance And Temperature

I.1. Solar Radiation

I.2. Heat Balance

I.3. Temperature

J. Atmospheric Circulation And Weather Systems

K. Water In The Atmosphere

L. World Climate And Climate Change

L.1. Koeppe N ’s Scheme Of Classification Of Climate

M. Water (Oceans)

M.1. Relief Of The Ocean Floor

N. Movements Of Ocean Water

O. Life On The Earth

P. Biodiversity And Conservation

10.2. Introduction to Maps

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11. Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian sub-continent); factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world (including India).

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A. Distribution Of Key Natural Resources Across The World (Including South Asia And The Indian Sub-Continent)

A.1. Natural Resources

A.2. Distribution Of Key Natural Resources

i. Minerals and metals

ii. Energy Resources/Fossil Fuels

iii. Nuclear Energy Resources

iv. Renewable Energy Resources

v. Other Natural Resources

B. Factors Responsible For The Location Of Primary, Secondary And Tertiary Sector Industries In Various Parts Of The World (Including India)

B.1. Factors Responsible For The Location Of Industries

B.2. Primary Sector Industries

B.3. Secondary Sector Industries

B.4. Tertiary Sector Industries

B.5. Geographical Factors

B.6. Non-Geographical Factors

B.7. Industrial System

B.8. Industrialization And Urbanization

B.9. Agglomeration Economies

B.10. Factors Responsible For The Location Of Industries In India

11.1. Geography (India, People and Economy)

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A. Population: Distribution, Density, Growth And Composition

A.1. Population Composition

B. Migration : Types, Causes And Consequences

C. Human Development

D. Human Settlements

D.1. Functional Classification of Towns

E. Land Resources And Agriculture

E.1. Land Use Categories

E.2. Land-Use Changes In India

E.3. Agricultural Land Use In India

E.4. Common Property Resources

E.5. Cropping Seasons In India

F. Water Resources

G.1. Mineral And Energy Resources

H. Manufacturing Industries

H.1. Types Of Industries

H.2. Location Of Industries

H.3. Industrial Regions And Districts

H.4.Major Industries

H.5. Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) And Industrial Development

I. Planning And Sustainable Development In Indian Context

J. Transport And Communication

K. International Trade

L. Geographical Perspective On Selected Issues And Problems

12. Important Geophysical phenomena such as Earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, Cyclone etc., geographical features and their location- changes in critical geographical features (including Waterbodies and Ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

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A. Important Geophysical Phenomena Such As Earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic Activity

A.1. Earthquakes

i. Seismic waves come in different types

i. The key elements and processes involved in the concept of a cyclone

ii. Types of Cyclones

B. Geographical Features And Their Location

B.1. Mountain Ranges Of The World

B.2. River Systems

B.3. Oceans Of The World And Associated Features

B.4. Plateaus Of The World

B.5. Major Plains Of The World

B.6. Major Straits Of The World

B.7. Other Geographical Features

B.8. Conclusion

C. Changes In Critical Geographical Features (Including Waterbodies And Ice-Caps) And In Flora And Fauna And The Effects Of Such Changes.

C.1. Critical Geographical Features And Changes

ii. Water bodies

iii. Groundwater

C.2. Glaciers And Ice-Caps

C.3. Flora And Fauna

C.4. Changes In Flora

C.5. Changes In Fauna

12.1. India: Physical Environment

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A. India– Location

B. Structure And Physiography

B.1. Physiography

C. Drainage System

C.1. The Himalayan Drainage

C.2. The Peninsular Drainage System

D.1. Factors Determining The Climate Of India

D.2. The Rhythm Of Seasons

E. Natural Vegetation

E.1. Types Of Forests

E.2. Forest Cover In India

E.3. Forest Conservation

E.4. Wildlife Conservation In India

E.5. Biosphere Reserves

G. Natural Hazards And Disasters

G.1. Natural Disasters And Hazards In India

G.2. Disaster Management

12.2. Human Geography

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A. Human Geography (Nature And Scope)

B. The World Population Distribution, Density And Growth

B.1. Factors Influencing The Distribution Of Population

B.2. Patterns Of Population Distribution In The World

B.3. Density Of Population

B.4. Population Growth

C. Population Composition

D. Human Development

E. Primary Activities

F. Secondary Activities

F.1. Manufacturing

F.2. Classification Of Manufacturing Industries

G. Tertiary And Quaternary Activities

G.1. Tertiary Activities

G.2. People Engaged In Tertiary Activities

G.3. Quaternary Activities

H. International Trade

H.1. History Of International Trade

H.2. Gateways Of International Trade

I. Human Settlements

I.1. Types And Patterns Of Settlements

i. Rural Settlements

ii. Urban Settlements

I.2. Classification Of Towns On The Basis Of Forms

GS2

All Updates topics given below

6. Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary; Ministries and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role in the Polity.

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iv. Appointment of High Court Judges

8. Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies

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A. President of India

B. Vice President of India

C. Prime Minister

D. Council of Ministers

E. Governor of States

F. Chief Justice of India (CJI) and Judges of the Supreme Court

G. Election Commission of India

H. Union Public Service Commission

I. State Public Service Commission

J. Finance Commission

K. Goods and Services Tax Council

L. Attorney General for India

M. Comptroller and Auditor General of India

N. National Commission for Scheduled Castes

O. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes

P. National Commission for Backward Classes

Q. Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities

R. Advocate General

10. Government Policies and Interventions for Development in Various Sectors and Issues arising out of their Design and Implementation.

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B. Government Policies and Interventions for Development in Recent Years

B.2. Major Governmental Interventions in the Social Sector in Recent Years

12. Welfare schemes for Vulnerable Sections of the Population by the Centre and States and the Performance of these schemes; Mechanisms, Laws, Institutions and Bodies constituted for the Protection and Betterment of these Vulnerable Sections.

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A.2. Welfare schemes for Vulnerable Sections

13. Issues relating to Development and Management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

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ii. The Subramanian Panel report

B.3. Government Initiatives to Boost the Education Sector in India

14. Issues relating to Poverty and Hunger.

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A.2. Status of poverty in India

16. Role of Civil Services in a Democracy

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K. Recent Reforms

19. Effect of Policies and Politics of Developed and Developing Countries on India’s Interests, Indian Diaspora.

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A.1. The Current Situation in the International Arena

A.2. Effect of Policies and Politics of the World on India

A.3. China and India’s Development Strategies

A.5. India’s Foreign Policy towards China and Pakistan

GS3

1. Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development and employment.

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A. Indian Economy and issues relating to planning

A.1. Definition of the term Economy

A.2. Indian Economy in different phases

A.3. Economic Planning

A.4. Objectives of Economic Planning

A.5. Issues Related to Economic Planning

B. Indian Economy issues relating to mobilization of resources

B.1. Mobilization of Resources

B.2. Types of Resources of India

B.3. Mobilization of Natural Resources

B.4. Mobilization of Human Resources

B.5. Mobilization of Financial Resources

B.6. State Finance Concerns

B.7. Important Issues with mobilization of resources in the Indian Economy

C. Indian Economy and issues relating to Growth

D. Indian Economy and issues relating to development

E. Indian Economy and Issues Relating to Employment

2. Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.

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A.3. Challenges

A.6. Concept of Green Growth

3. Government Budgeting.

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C. Union Budget of India

D. Key Facts about the Union Budget of India

G.1. Revenue Budget

i. Revenue Receipts

ii. Revenue Expenditure

G.2. Capital Budget

4. Major crops – cropping patterns in various parts of the country, different types of irrigation and irrigation systems – storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers.

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D.2. Government Initiatives to aid farmers

i. Other State level Initiatives

5. Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public Distribution System- objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing.

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A.7. Issues related to farm subsidies in general

E.2. What are the different components of economics of animal rearing in India?

E.3. What is the significance of animal rearing in India?

6. Food processing and related industries in India- scope and significance, location, upstream and downstream requirements, supply chain management.

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A.9. Government Initiatives

A.10. Major Schemes by the Government

A.12. The Present Status and Future of Food Processing Industries in India

9. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.

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A. Infrastructure

A.1. Types of Infrastructure

A.2. Significance of Infrastructure

B. Infrastructure Energy

B.1. Recent Initiatives

11. Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.

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D. Developments in Science and Technology in Modern India

12. Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology.

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A. Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology

13. Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights.

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ii. Few Space missions by foreign agencies

ii. Recent Developments

14. Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.

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A.2. Wildlife Conservation Projects

C.6. Current EIA Reports – India

i. Environmental Impact Assessment In India

ii. Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2006

iii. Some of the major changes over the years are

16. Linkages between development and spread of extremism.

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A.7. Government initiatives for regions affected by extremism

19. Security challenges and their management in border areas; -linkages of organized crime with terrorism.

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ii. Schemes launched for improved border management

GS3: ENVIRONMENT

1. Environment

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C.8. State Of The World’s Forests (SOFO)

C.2. Forest Ecosystem

UPSC Full Course [English]

About Lesson

i. Literature

The Latin word literature means writing made of letters.

Literature is mainly classified into prose and poetry.

The prose is again categorized as fiction and nonfiction.

Ancient Literature	Vedas and Upanishads: Overview: Sacred texts form the bedrock of Indian philosophy, spirituality, and culture, covering themes like cosmology, ethics, and meditation. Epics: Ramayana: Authored by Valmiki, it’s a grand narrative exploring themes of duty, righteousness, and devotion. Mahabharata: An epic tale of war, duty, and morality, including the Bhagavad Gita, a significant spiritual and philosophical discourse. Sanskrit Classics: Works like Kalidasa’s “Shakuntala” and Bhasa’s plays are renowned for their poetic beauty and dramatic expression.
Medieval Literature	Bhakti and Sufi Poetry: Overview: Devotional poetry blossomed in regional languages, emphasizing love and devotion to God, and promoting egalitarian spiritual values. Court Poetry and Chronicles: Examples: Prithviraj Raso, written in Apabhramsha, celebrates the heroics of Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan.
Modern Literature	Colonial Era: Writers like Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and Mirza Ghalib made significant contributions to Indian literature, reflecting the socio-political conditions of the time. Post-Independence: With the advent of the Progressive Writers’ Movement, literary works started addressing themes of social reform, nationalism, and human rights.
Contemporary Literature	Indian literature today is a dynamic amalgamation of traditional and modern themes, exploring issues like identity, diaspora, gender, and globalization. Notable authors include R.K. Narayan, Salman Rushdie, Arundhati Roy, and Jhumpa Lahiri.
Regional Literature	Each linguistic region in India boasts a vibrant literary tradition, with classics in Tamil, Bengali, Marathi, Punjabi, Malayalam, and other languages. These literatures cover a wide array of genres, from poetry and drama to novels and short stories, reflecting the local cultures, histories, and sensibilities.

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