Bengal Before the British Conquest

Bengal was the most fertile and richest province in India. Its rich resources and profitable trade attracted various foreign companies, including Dutch, French, and English.

Bengal was an important province for the British. From Bengal, the English EIC primarily exported cotton textiles, silk, indigo, and saltpetre, which constituted the majority of the British exports from India.

Because of the various farmans, English EIC and its servants had a profitable trade in Bengal. While the trade between India and Europe was exclusively reserved for the Company, the employees were allowed to conduct private trade within the country.

Even though the Company’s employees were paid very low salaries, they earned a considerable income from their private trade. That’s why they were so keen to take service in India.

Siraj-ud-Daulah (April 1756-June 1757)

About

• • Siraj’s succession was challenged by two other contenders for the throne, Shaukat Jung (Faujdar of Purnea) and Ghaseti Begum (Alivardi’s daughter). This resulted in intense court factionalism and support was offered to different warring groups by a dominant group in the Nawab’s court comprising Jagat Seth, Umichand (or Amir Chand), Raj Ballabh, Rai Durlabh, Mir Jafar, zamindars and others who were also opposed to Siraj.
  • This seriously destabilised the administration of Bengal and the advantage was taken by English East India Company.
• Main reasons for conflict between the Nawab of Bengal and the English Company were:

• • Farman of 1717: In 1717, the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a farman (royal order) granting the British East India Company many trading privileges. This farman became a perpetual source of conflict between the Bengal Nawabs and the English Company.
    • For one, it meant loss of revenue to the Bengal government and second, dastaks were misused by the Company’s servants to evade taxes on their private trade.
  • Shelter to Krishna Das: The English Company had given shelter to Krishna Das, son of Raj Ballabh, who had fled with immense treasures against the Nawab’s will.
  • Support to Ghaseti Begum: The Company had also offended the Nawab by giving support to the claims of Ghaseti Begum.
  • Immediate Cause: The breaking point came when the English Company, anticipating another round of Anglo-French struggle, began to strengthen the fortifications of Fort William and mounted guns on its walls.
    • Siraj pleaded repeatedly with the English to desist from further fortification, but to no avail. Seeing his own authority flouted in his own dominion, Siraj-ud-Daulah decided to launch an offensive.

Black Hole Tragedy

• On 15 June 1756, Siraj-ud-Daulah surrounded Fort William and the siege lasted for five days. During this while, Governor Roger Drake and some of his men escaped through the back door down the Hooghly River, took refuge at Fulta near the sea and waited for help from Madras. They left behind 146 persons, including some women and children, under the command of John Zepahnaih Holwell.
  • After the fort fell on 20 June, the Nawab renamed Calcutta as Alinagar, placed it under the charge of Manik Chand, and himself returned to Murshidabad.
• Subsequently, Holwell and others were imprisoned in a small room of the fort popularly known as Black Hole (18 feet long and 14 feet 10 inches wide) in conditions of excessive heat and crowding owing to summer solstice. It is believed that out of 146 persons imprisoned in that room, only 26 survived the next morning, the rest were probably trampled down by the others for places near the window. The incident came to be known as the ‘Black Hole Tragedy’.
  • The incident was held up as an example of British heroism and Nawab’s callousness. Siraj-ud-Daulah was portrayed a cruel monster and held directly responsible for the deaths.
  • The English Company used the episode to sway British public opinion and sympathy in favour of the wars of aggression it intended to wage.
• Meanwhile, help came from Madras in the form of a strong naval force under the command of Robert Clive.
• Manik Chand, the Nawab’s officer in charge of Fort William, was bribed and he surrendered after a brief pretence of resistance.

Treaty of Alinagar (9 February 1757)

• Consequently, in February 1757, the Nawab had to make peace with the English and sign the humiliating Treaty of Alinagar.
• As per the treaty, the Nawab had to restore to the English their former privileges of trade, grant permission to fortify Calcutta and even pay compensation amount for the losses suffered by the English.
• In this way, Clive had regained Calcutta and even forced the Nawab to concede to all English demands. Still, the English were not satisfied. They had decided to replace the Nawab with Mir Jafar. With this in mind, they placed an impossible set of demands before the Nawab, thus making a war inevitable. Clive organised a web of intrigue with the leaders in the Nawab’s court.
  • Chief among these were:
    • Mir Jafar: the Mir Bakshi (Commander-in-Chief of the Nawab’s army)
    • Manik Chand: the Officer incharge of Calcutta
    • Amir Chand: a rich merchant
    • Jagat Seth: the biggest banker of Bengal
    • Khadim Khan: commanded a large number of the Nawab’s troops
• These disaffected nobles of Siraj’s court joined hands with the English to oust Siraj and install their protege, leading to the Plassey Conspiracy of 1757.

The Battle (23 June 1757)

• On 23 June 1757, both armies met at Plassey, 30 km south of Murshidabad. The English force comprised of 950 European infantry and 2100 Indian sepoys, while that of the Nawab comprised of 50,000 commanded by the treacherous Mir Jafar.
• Only a small group of Nawab’s soldiers fought bravely. They were led by Mir Madan and Mohan Lai. After Mir Madan was killed by a stray shot from the English side, Mir Jafar played upon the fears of the Nawab and advised him to retire from the battlefield, leaving the command in the hands of his generals. The trick was well played. Once the Nawab retired with 2,000 horsemen, a large part of the Nawab’s army led by Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh merely looked on, as Clive routed the rest of Nawab’s forces.
• As a result, the Nawab had to flee but was captured and put to death by an assassin, Mohammad Ali Beg, on the orders of Mir Jafar’s son, Miran.

Consequences of Battle of Plassey

Details

• Mir Jafar was proclaimed as Nawab of Bengal (he was promised the Nawabship by Clive even before the Battle of Plassey).
• Robert Clive was confirmed as the Governor of Bengal (Clive’s First Governorship: 1757-60).
• The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• It was also understood that British officials would no longer need to pay any taxes on their private trade.
• The Company received the zamindari of 24-Parganas near Calcutta.
• Mir Jafar paid a sum of Rs 17,700,000 to the Company as compensation for the attack on Calcutta.
• Mir Jafar paid out a sum of ₹50 lakh as gift or bribe to the Company’s officials, besides a large amount as personal present to Clive and compensation for the Company’s losses.
• All the French settlements in Bengal were surrendered to the English.

Significance of Battle of Plassey

Details

• The battle was hardly significant from the military point of view as the English army showed no military superiority. It was a mere skirmish, resulting in 65 casualties on the English side and 500 on the Nawab’s side. More than the might of the English, it was the treachery of the Nawab’s confidants that decided the fate of the battle of Plassey.
• However, the battle turned out to be of great historical significance because of the events that followed.
  • The British emerged as kingmakers in Bengal:
    • The British now appointed their man, Mir Jafar, as the new Nawab. Jafar was completely dependent on the English for maintenance of his position in Bengal.
    • Hence, an English force of 6,000 troops was stationed in Bengal for Nawab’s protection with the natural consequence that all real power passed into the Company’s hands and Mr. Watts, the British Resident at Murshidabad, began to wield considerable influence.
  • Transformation in position of the English Company:
    • The victory in Plassey brought about a great transformation in the position of the English Company in Bengal. Until now the English Company was just one of the European companies trading in Bengal.
    • After Plassey, the Company emerged supreme and established its monopoly over Bengal trade by marginalising the French and the Dutch Companies.
    • The English also emerged as powerful contenders in Bengal politics.
  • Vast resources of Bengal placed at British disposal:
    • The victory in the battle placed vast resources at the disposal of the British. The first instalment of wealth paid to the Company immediately after Plassey was paid in silver coins, carried in more than 100 boats. Bengal then was the most prosperous province of India—its manufactures were in huge demand not only in India but also in world outside.
    • Victory in Bengal played a decisive role in Anglo-French struggle. In fact, with the revenues of Bengal, the English were able to meet the cost of conquest of rest of the country.
    • The rich revenues of Bengal enabled the British to organise a strong army.
    • The rich resources of the Bengal were used to conquer the rest of India.
  • The Bengal plunder began to arrive in London and the effects appears to have been instantaneous, for all authorities agree that the the ‘Industrial Revolution‘ began with the year 1770 after Plassey was fought in 1757. 
  • The condition of the common of Bengal gradually deteriorated due to the weakness of the Nawab. Lawlessness and continuous economic exploitation of the servants of the company broke the backbone of Bengalis who once upon a time used to lead a prosperous life.
  • British built and trained an army with native Indian Sepoys who then fulfilled the ambition of further colonization. The British East India company also wanted to protect the rich colony of India for which it acquired buffer colonies in Singapore, Penang, Burma, Nepal, Malacca etc. The British advancement in Asia was also aided by superior military and modern artillery and Navy. 
• Thus, the ‘Plassey Revolution’ as it is called, proved to be a battle with far-reaching consequences. The British victory in Piassey marked the beginning of British conquest of Bengal and later of India. It helped the Company and its servants to amass unimaginable wealth at the cost of the people of Bengal.

Consequences of Battle of Buxar

Details

• Buxar sealed the fate of the Bengal Nawabs and, for all practical purposes, power was transferred into the hands of the English Company.
• Mir Jafar was brought back to the throne of Bengal, this time on much harsher terms.
  • Mir Jafar agreed to hand over the districts of Midnapore, Burdwan and Chittagong to the English and permitted them duty free trade in Bengal (with the exception of 2% duty on salt).
  • He and his successors had to pay 5 lakh per month to the English Company, allow Company’s intervention in matters of appointments and reduce military establishments.
• Mir Jafar died shortly thereafter and his minor son, Najim-ud-Daulah was appointed as Nawab.
• Clive was resent as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bengal (Clive’s Second governorship: 1765-67). First and foremost, he took up the tasks of defining relations with the defeated powers and showed considerable practical wisdom in his settlements with them.

Settlement with Nawab of Awadh

Clive went to Awadh, met Shuja-ud-Daula at Allahabad and concluded with him the First Treaty of Allahabad (16 August 1765). As per the treaty,

• The Nawab of Awadh was made to pay a war indemnity of Rs 50 lakh to the Company.
• The Nawab was made to surrender Allahabad and Kora to Emperor Shah Alam II and confirm Balwant Singh, the zamindar of Banaras, to his estate.
• The Nawab was made to enter an offensive and defensive treaty (subsidiary alliance) with the Company. The Company promised to support the Nawab against an outside attack, provided he paid for the services of the troops. In this way, the Nawab of Awadh became dependent on the Company.
  • (In this way, Clive did not annex Awadh since annexing would have placed the Company under an obligation to protect extensive land frontier, which was vulnerable to attack by the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas. Instead, Clive converted Awadh into a friendly buffer state between the British territories in Bengal and the Maratha possessions).

Settlement with Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II

Clive concluded the Second Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765) with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. As per the treaty:

• The Emperor was taken into Company’s protection and given the districts of Kora and Allahabad ceded by Awadh (the Emperor resided in the fort of Allahabad for 6 years as a virtual prisoner of the English).
• In return, the Emperor issued a farman dated 12 August 1765 granting to the Company the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in return for the Company making an annual payment of Rs 26 lakh to him and providing for the expenses of the Nizamat of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa which was fixed at Rs 53 lakh.
  • (In this way, the farman legalised the Company’s gain in Bengal; it established a ‘dual system’ in Bengal in theory and converted the Emperor into a useful ‘rubber stamp’ of the Company).

Settlement with Nawab of Bengal

After the death of Mir Jafar, Najm-ud- Daulah was allowed to

succeed his father (February 1765) on the following conditions:

• The Nawab would surrender Defence and Foreign Affairs (both were nizamat functions) into the hands of the Company and civil administration into the hands of a Naib-Subahdar nominated by the Company and not removable without their consent (Clearly, the Company gained Diwani from the emperor and nizamat functions from the Nawab of Bengal.
  • In this way, the infamous dual system was ‘dual’ only in theory; while in practice the Company acquired all real power in Bengal. The Nawab lost all independent military or financial power and became a mere figurehead).

Dual System of Administration (Dual/double governance or Dyarchy)

Details

• In theory, Dual System meant the system of governance where the Company exercised Diwani functions (revenue collection) while the Nawab of Bengal exercised the Nizamat functions (defence, law and order and administration of justice).
• However, Najm-ud-Daulah was allowed to succeed as Nawab of Bengal only on the condition that he surrendered the Nizamat functions. Hence, in reality, the ‘dual system’ was only a sham as it was the Company that exercised all political power and merely used the Nawab and his administration as an instrument for its purposes.
• Thus, in practice, the dual system referred to the system of government whereby the Company acquired all real power while the ‘responsibility’ for administration rested on the shoulders of the Nawab. A fatal divorce of power from responsibility was inherent in this dual system.
  • The advantage of this system was that the British had power without responsibility. This had adverse consequences for the people of Bengal, as neither the Company nor the Nawab cared for their welfare. In the words of Clive himself, ‘Such a scene of anarchy, confusion, bribery, corruption and extortion was never seen or heard of in any country but Bengal’.
  • Thus, began the drain of wealth from Bengal. The Company stopped sending money from England to buy Indian goods. These goods were now purchased from the revenues of Bengal and sold abroad.
  • This drain of wealth greatly impoverished Bengal and was a major factor responsible for the terrible Bengal famine of 1770. Though the famine was caused by failure of rains, its devastating effects were accentuated by the Company’s policies.
  • The Company had to pay a handsome sum per year to the British Government as its share of the rich prize.

Why did Clive go for Dual System?

• Clive wanted to maintain Nawab as a shadow authority which the Company should seem to venerate. Open assumption of authority would have shown the true colours of the Company and might have resulted in uniting Indian princes against it.
• The Company did not wish to generate England’s interest regarding the functioning of the Company. It wanted to avoid interference of the British Parliament.
• It was also doubtful whether other European companies would acknowledge the Company’s subahship and pay duties that they paid to Nawabs of Bengal.
• Open assumption of political power would have attracted the attention of other European powers.
• The Company did not have adequate personnel to run the administration of Bengal.
• Directors of the Company were more interested in financial and commercial gains rather than territorial acquisitions. A dual system would serve the Company’s interests well.
• As a result of the system of Dual Government, the English Company acquired real power without any responsibility while the position of Nawab was virtually reduced to a cipher.

Adverse Impact of Dual System

• The dual system proved to be a total failure and had the following evil effects:
  • It led to complete breakdown of administration and law and order in Bengal. While the Nawab had no real power to enforce law, the Company also shunned all responsibility in this regard.
  • Bengal, once the granary of India, now faced the specter of famines. The Company appointed two Naib-Diwans, Mohammad Reza Khan and Raja Sitab Roy for Bengal and Bihar respectively, and directed them to collect as high revenue as possible (Reza Khan was also the Naib-Nazim). The Bengal peasant faced some of the worst exactions by the revenue officials and many of them ran away into the jungles or simply joined the ranks of the robbers. Clearly, the Company’s policies in Bengal greatly contributed to the terrible Bengal famine of 1770.
  • Dual government led to disruption of trade and commerce in Bengal. The Company’s merchants exercised strict monopoly and would undersell the Indian merchants in Bengal, pushing many of them into destitution and beggary.
  • It also ruined indigenous industry and skill. The Company used its political power to compel the cotton weavers of Bengal to buy raw material from and sell woven cloth to the Company exclusively at arbitrary prices. The Company also encouraged the industries selectively. For instance, as per an order of 1769, the Company was asked to encourage production of raw silk but discourage woven silk fabrics as they competed with silk fabrics manufactured in England. Even the Company’s factories where raw silk was produced, the silk winders were compelled to work under oppressive conditions; many even cut-off their thumbs to escape the miseries of factory life.
  • The Company’s avaricious policies in Bengal vitiated the entire atmosphere and led to an overall moral ‘degradation and decay of Bengal society. The Indian servants of the Company followed the example of their corrupt masters. The peasants and artisans, unsure of receiving fair price for their labour, lost incentive for good work.

Battle of Plassey

Causes

Significance

– Misuse of trade privileges by the Company officials.

– Attack on the sovereignty of the Nawab by fortification of Calcutta by the Company.

– Asylum to political fugitives by the Company.

– Blocal hole tragedy

– The Company was on the offensive and wanted to replace the Nawab and Mir Jafar.

– It made the British masters of Bengal.

– The revenues of Bengal enabled the Company to organise a strong army.

– The control of Bengal’s revenue and monopoly over its trade strengthened the financial position of the company.

– It helped the Company’s servants amass untold wealth.

– Indian industries declined rapidly after this Battle.

– After the battle began a process culminated in Anglicisation of India.

Battle of Buxar

Causes

Significance

– Failure of Mir Qasim to fulfil the Company’s financial demand.

– The Nawab-Company tussle over transit and trade duty.

– Outbreak of series of wars between the English and Mir Qasim in 1763.

– It demonstrated superiority of English Army.

– The Company ceased to be a trading company and became a political power.

– The British defeated both the Nawab and the Mughal Emperor.

– It made the English contenders for the supremacy of the whole country.

– It confirmed the decision of Plassey.

Dual Government

Reasons

Impact

– Company’s reluctance to take the  responsibility of administration of Bengal.

– Company only wanted to make good of its revenue possessions.

– Company’s unwillingness to recognise the transformation in its role from a trading company to a ruling power.

– Led to an administrative breakdown in Bengal.

– Neither the company nor the Nawab cared for the administration and public welfare.

– Company’s servants rack-rented the people.